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MANUFACTURE 



METALLIC ALLOYS 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/practicalguidefoOOguet 



A PRACTICAL GUIDE 

FOR THE 

MANUFACTURE 

OF 

METALLIC ALLOYS 



COMPRISING THEIR 



CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, 



WITH THEIR 



PREPARATION, COMPOSITION, AND USES. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF 



A. GUETTIER, 

R OF "LA FONDERIJ 



ENGINEER AND DIRECTOR OF FOUNDRIES, AUTHOR OF "LA FONDERIE 
EN FRANCE," ETC. ETC. 



BY 



T > V J ,No'< 



A. A. FESQUET, :; J , , /iL^ 

CHEMIST AND ENGINEER. \/^<T-> <"\« J 



PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 

406 Walnut Street. 

LONDON: 

SAMPSON LOW, SON, & MARSTON, 

CROWN BUILDINGS, 188 FLEET ST. 
1872. 









6 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
UOLLiNS, PRINTER, 705 JaTNE STREET. 



INTRODUCTION 



Hundkeds of times have we held back from the 
undertaking of a special treatise on alloys. 

A complete work, adequate to the importance of 
the subject, would require innumerable researches and 
studies, and one volume would not be sufficient. Yet, 
it would scarcely be possible to give anything beyond 
a concise idea of a subject entirely too vast and com- 
plex to be treated in a strict and exact manner. 

Let us consider all the metals actually employed, 
from those which are essentially industrial, to the pre- 
cious metals which belong to the arts rather than to * 
industry proper ; and up to those modern metals so 
little known that they still remain exclusively within 
the limits of scientific investigation. When we see 
these various metals combining with each other, one 
by one, two by two, three by three, &c, and in various 
proportions, we may well ask if it be possible to create 
a methodical and absolute treatise on alloys. 

Not only would it be impossible to resolve all of the 
problems arising out of the multiple combinations of 
the metals with each other, on account of their innu- 

1* 



VI INTRODUCTION. 

merable quantity; but, as experience must be the de- 
finitive test, it is impossible for most of these problems 
to be solved without practical studies, which alone are 
capable of throwing sufficient light upon this subject. 

In order to study all of the alloys which may be 
produced by the various metals, beginning with the 
usual ones and finishing with the new ones, a consider- 
able expenditure of time and money would be neces- 
sary. A lifetime would scarcely be sufficient for pro- 
ducing and studying with profit all of the elementary 
combinations which the question requires. 

Few, if any, persons among those interested in the 
metallurgic art, have made longer and more complete 
researches on alloys than we have. However, with 
entire humility, we are ready to acknowledge that our 
efforts, which may have aided the industry up to a 
certain point, are far from having elucidated the least 
complex parts of the question. 

We have endeavored to give to these studies a practi- 
cal turn, by considering the alloys according to their 
conspicuous qualities; and following the successive 
variations in combination of the common metals, and 
the part borne by each one in these modifications. 
But these researches, already protracted and difficult, 
have touched only one part of our intended pro- 
gramme. 

We have been obliged to give approximate results, 
in place of precise numbers, for the part played by 
each metal in regard to the resistance, hardness, spe- 
cific gravity, fusibility, &c. of alloys. But, to have 



INTRODUCTION. VU 

done otlierwise ; it would have been necessary to mul- 
tiply the experiments and the verifications, and to 
have mechanical trials intervening in a question where 
the principal part is the work of the founder. 

Time and opportunities have failed, not only for 
completing these first studies, but also for beginning 
new ones. Nor can we say when we shall resume this 
question, if at all. 

Then, and until others more successful or better en- 
dowed increase the knowledge of alloys by new and 
correct data, there is nothing left but to sum up, as 
clearly and as briefly as possible, all that has been 
ascertained in regard to alloys, by others and by our- 
self. 

On that account, and in order to make a book within 
the means of all workers, we shall only examine the 
combinations of the most usual metals. 

The known metals may be subdivided into four dis- 
tinct classes: — 

1st, The metals especially industrial, that is to say, 
those which are most in use in all kinds of manufac- 
tures. They are : Copper, tin, zinc, lead, iron, steel, &c. 

2d. The metals which belong to the arts, but whose 
importance is secondary. These are : Bismuth, anti- 
mony, nickel, arsenic, and mercury. 

3d. The precious metals which belong to the arts, 
or more particularly to the manufacture of objects of 
luxury. These are: Gold, silver, aluminium, and pla- 
tinum. 

4th. The metals scarcely used in industry or in 



viii INTROPUCTION. 

alloys; most of them being, at present, without any 
clearly demonstrated usefulness. 

After some preliminary explanations about the phy- 
sical and chemical properties of the metals and alloys, 
we shall examine the metals of the first class in view 
of their mutual combinations. This investigation is a 
sort of commentary upon the results of our personal re- 
searches which were published a few years ago, under 
the title of Recherches sur Us Alliages des Metaux indus- 
trials. 

This portion will be followed by general indications 
concerning the metals of the second and third classes, 
in view of the alloys with themselves and with metals 
of the other classes ; most of these metals, with a few 
well-known exceptions, having given rise to observa- 
tions more curious and scientific than practical and 
useful. 

Lastly, we shall consider the metals of the fourth 
class only in regard to their possible association with 
alloys presenting certain interest in the arts. 

If we add to these data concise observations in rela- 
tion to the composition and preparation of the mix- 
tures, to their smelting and moulding, &o. — in one 
word, to the industrial treatment of alloys — and if we 
annex to that the series of compositions of alloys which 
have been found practical and useful in various sorts 
of manufactures, we shall have composed a treatise on 
alloys, or an experimental guide, which will present 
in a concise form the principal elements of this impor- 
tant question; but we shall still be far from having 



INTRODUCTION". IX 

elucidated even a small portion of a subject which, in 
many respects, demands the revelations of science 
combined with a large experience. 

For instance, when the new metals, comparatively 
unknown, shall be added to the usual metals whose 
alloys have been tested by long practice, who can fore- 
see the results of these new combinations, or the new 
qualities imparted to the ancient metals, as has been 
done, with more or less success, to copper by aluminium, 
and to iron and steel by wolfram (tungsten)? 

In regard to the ordinary metals, whose principal 
combinations are well known, we have to ascertain the 
proportions, the elements best adapted to certain uses, 
the hardness and malleability, &c; and to educe sci- 
entifically with figures these proportions and elements, 
and to cause them to rise above the empiric state in 
which they have lingered under the rules of practical 
routine. This, above all, is -the aim toward which our 
efforts must tend. 

With those new metals which are not well known, 
we must endeavor, by uniting them with known alloys, 
to produce new combinations, which may prove real 
revelations, and by which the science of alloys will 
have made, in a short time, very rapid and unexpected 
strides. This is the road to sure progress, and for im- 
provements in the working and employment of metals. 

Because it is possible to unite in indefinite propor- 
tions some metals, which, being thoroughly mixed 
during their fusion, remain so after solidification, we 
must not infer that all alloys are mixtures only. Met- 



X INTRODUCTION. 

als, equally with all other chemical substances, com- 
bine in definite proportions, the limits of which must 
be known, if we desire to obtain an intimate and nor- 
mal union. Indeed, our object is not to create alloys 
with any proportions or metals which, by liquation, 
will not produce homogeneous castings. If such were 
the case, the different parts of the castings would have 
different compositions, in indefinite proportions. 

Therefore the science of alloys is not a mere guess- 
work, which consists in taking metals, no matter what 
they be, and in mixing them without rule or measure. 
We must use those quantities best adapted to such and 
such metals, which we intend to use in an alloy ; and 
it sometimes happens that a very small proportion of 
a given metal will impart to another metal new and 
unexpected properties. 

This is a reason why the study of alloys made with 
certain metals, which at the present time have been but 
little experimented upon, may produce very important 
results ; and we cannot too strongly recommend such 
researches to those of our readers who may attempt 
industrial experiments in the department of metallic 
alloys. 

a. a. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction . . . y 



PART I. 

CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE METALS WHICH ARE COMMONLY 
USED FOR ALLOYS. 

Copper "... 4 15 

Tin • . " . .- 15 

Zinc . . . . . . . f . . 16 

Lead 17 

Iron . . 18 

Bismuth . . . 19 

Antimony 20 

Nickel 20 

Arsenic 21 

Mercury . . .21 

Gold 22 

Silver 23 

Platinum . . .24 

Aluminium . . 24 

Generalities, Tables, and Data 25 



Xll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 

PAGE 

Fusibility 30 

Hardness 31 

Ductility 31 

Tenacity . . . . . . . . . .31 

Specific gravity 31 

Elasticity 34 

Specific heat 35 

Latent heat 35 

Oxidation 35 

CHAPTER III. 

PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 

Processes of mixing 36 

Cooling 38 

Crystallization 39 

Liquation 39 

Temperature ......... 40 

More or less complex alloys ...... 40 

Fusion . • . . 42 

Precautions, &c, to be taken during the fabrication . .42 

Waste .......... 50 

Determination of the elements of an alloy .... 52 

PART II. 
CHAPTER I. 

ALLOYS OF THE METALS MOST USED IN THE ARTS. 

I. Studies on the Alloys of Copper, Zinc, Tin, and Lead 55 

Alloys of tin and zinc 58 

General observations .... 61 



CONTENTS. 






xiii 


PAGE 


Alloys of tin and lead . . . . , . .63 


General observations 






. 64 


" tin, zinc, and lead 






. 66 


General observations 






. 68 


" zinc and lead 






. 69 


General observations 






, 70 


" copper and tin . . . . 






. 72 


General observations 






. 75 


" copper and zinc . 






. 79 


General observations 






82 


" copper and lead . 






85 


General observations 






86 


" copper, tin, and zinc . 






. 87 


General observations 






90 


" copper, tin, zinc, and lead . 






93 


General observations 






95 


II. Alloys of Iron with Copper, Zinc, Tin, and Lead 


. 97 


Alloys of iron and copper . . . 


98 


" iron and zinc ....... 


100 


" iron and tin 


102 


" iron and lead ...... 


104 


CHAPTER II. 


ALLOYS OF THE METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE IN THE ARTS. 


Alloys of bismuth and copper ...... 106 


" bismuth and zinc .... 




. 106 


* bismuth and tin 




. 106 


** bismuth and lead . . . 




. 107 


il bismuth and iron .... 




. 108 


" bismuth and antimony 




. 108 


u bismuth and nickel .... 




. 108 


" bismuth and arsenic .... 




. 108 


General observations on the alloys of bismuth . 




. 108 


2 









XIV 



CONTENTS. 



Alloys of antimony and copper 

" antimony and zinc 

" antimony and tin 

" antimony and lead 

" antimony and iron 

" antimony and nickel 

" antimony and arsenic 
General observations on the alloys of antimony 

Alloys of nickel and copper 

" nickel and zinc . 

" nickel and tin 

" nickel and lead . 

" nickel and iron . 

" nickel and arsenic 
General observations on the alloys of nickel 

Alloys of arsenic and copper 

" arsenic and zinc . 

" arsenic and tin . 

" arsenic and lead . 

" arsenic and iron . 
General observations on the alloys of arsenic 

Amalgams of the metals of the first and second categories 

" copper . 

" zinc 

tin 
lead 

" iron 

" bismuth 

" antimony 

" nickel and arsenic . 

Mosaic gold . 
Other amalgams . 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



CHAPTER III. 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS, BELONGIN 


G ESI 


ECIALLY TO THE 


ARTS OF LUXURY. 


PAGE 


Alloys of gold and copper 122 


" gold and zinc 






. 124 


" gold and tin ... 






. 124 


" gold and lead 






. 124 


" gold and iron 






. 125 


" gold and bismuth 






. 126 


" gold and antimony 






. 126 


" gold and nickel . 






. 126 


" gold and arsenic . 






. 127 


" gold and mercury (amalgams) 






. 127 


" gold and silver . 






. 127 


" gold and platinum 






. 128 


General observations on the alloys of gold 






. 129 


Alloys of silver and copper 






. 129 


" silver and zinc . 






. 130 


" silver and tin ... 






. 130 


" silver and lead 






. 130 


" silver and iron . 






. 131 


" silver and bismuth 






. 131 


" silver and antimony 






. 131 


" silver and nickel . 






. 131 


" silver and arsenic 






. 131 


" silver and mercury (amalgams) 






. 132 


" silver and platinum 






. 132 


General observations on the alloys of silver 




. 133 


Alloys of platinum and copper .... 




. 133 


" platinum and zinc 






. 134 


" platinum and tin ... 






. 134 


" platinum and lead 






. 134 


" platinum and iron 






. 134 


" platinum and steel 






. 135 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 















PA«E 


Alloys of platinum and bismuth . . . . . 135 


" platinum and antimony 




. 136 


" platinum and nickel . 




. 136 


" platinum and arsenic . 




. 136 


" platinum and mercury (amalgams) 




. 136 


General observations on the alloys of platinum 




- . 137 


Various alloys of aluminium 




. 137 


CHAPTER IY. 


ALLOYS OF THE METALS RARELY OR NEVER USED IN THE ARTS. 


Preamble 143 


Manganese and its alloys 












. 145 


Chromium and its alloys 












. 148 


Cobalt and its alloys . 












. 150 


Cadmium and its alloys 












. 152 


Titanium and its alloys 












. 152 


Uranium atld its alloys 












. 153 


Tungsten and its alloys 












. 154 


Molybdenum and its alloys . 












. 162 


Osmium and its alloys 












. 163 


Iridium and its alloys . 












. 163 


Palladium and its alloys 












. 165 


Rhodium and its alloys 












. 166 


Ruthenium and its alloys 












. 167 


Tellurium and its alloys 












. 168 


Potassium and sodium, and their alloys 






. 168 


P. 


AM 


: ii 


[. 









Alloys used in the arts . 

CHAPTER I. 

BRONZES OF ART. 

Conditions required .... 



The alloys which best fulfil these conditions 
Alloy of the Brothers Keller 



170 



171 
172 
172 



CONTENTS. 



XVII 



PAQK 

Composition of the alloys of various public monuments . 172 

Bronzes of the Greeks and Romans 173 

" for gilding 174 

Darcet's experiments 174 

Bronzes of various statues 175 

CHAPTER II. 



ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 

The French standard . 

The English standard . 

The standards of various countries 

Ancient coins and medals . 

Old Indian coins 

Saxon coins .... 

Bronze coins of Attica 

Analyses of coins of various countries 

CHAPTER III. 

ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF ORDNANCE, ARMS, PROJECTILES, ETC. 



Early bronze for cannon 

Bronze, for cannon, of the Brothers Keller 
Bronzes used by various nations of Europe 
Experiments of French officers of engineers and artillery 
Characteristics of the alloy best suited for ordnance 
Alloys of the arms of the ancients .... 
Various recent experiments . . 
Various alloys adapted to these uses . . 

CHAPTER IV. 

ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 

Mr. Le Brun's experiments 

Alloy for hammering, plates, and fine wires 

" pin wire 

Bronze for sheathing 

Brass plates called Jemmapes brass . 

2* 



177 

177 
179 
180 
181 
181 
181 
181 



182 
182 
183 
183 
183 
186 
187 
187 



190 
190 
191 
197 
197 



XV111 CONTENTS. 

PAfiE 

Similor for gilding- or plating 197 

Maillechort for rolling 197 

CHAPTER V. 

COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHINGS. 

Mr. Bobierre's experiments on various sheathings, with 

results 198 

Muntz's alloy . 202 

CHAPTER VI. 

ALLOYS FOR TYPE, ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 

Mr. Chas. Laboulaye on the conditions to be fulfilled . 203 

Alloys for printing-types ....... 205 

" small types and stereotypes .... 205 

" • plates for engraving music .... 205 

Yarious alloys 206 

CHAPTER VII. 

ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 

Bell-metals 207 

Analysis of celebrated bell at Rouen . . . . . 209 

Analyses of modern English and French bells . . . 210 

Metal for gongs 211 

Chinese gongs 211 

Cymbals 211 

CHAPTER VIII. 

ALLOYS FOR PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Chinese mirrors 213 

Mirrors of antiquity 213 

French mirrors 213 

Mr. Despretz's alloys for mirrors ..... 214 

Speculum metals of MM. Stodart, Faraday, and Dumas . 215 



CONTENTS. XI X 

PARE 

Mr. Gaudin's recommendations 217 

Fahlun brilliants 217 

CHAPTER IX. 

ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, GOLD AND SILVER WARES, BRITANNIA WARE, 

ETC. 

French legal standards for jewelry gold — first, second, and 

third standards 218 

Colors of the gold — yellow or antique, red, green, gold 

feuille morte, gold vert d'eau, white, and blue gold . 218 

Alloys of gold — conditions necessary 219 

English alloys for imitating gold 219 

Jewelry gold . . . . . . • • • 220 

Ring gold 220 

Gold ........'... 220 

Common jewelry 220 

Yellow metals for dipping ....... 220 

Metal for gilding 221 

Manheim gold 221 

Chrysocale 221 

Tombac, or similor ........ 222 

Red similor 222 

White similor 222 

A whitened copper 222 

Bath metal 222 

Pinchbeck, or Prince Robert's metal .... 222 

Argentan (packfund, or packfong) of Sheffield . . . 223 

White packfong 223 

White malleable alloys 223 

German silver • . 224 

Chinese white copper, or Chinese packfong . . . 224 

German silver for rolling . 224 

Ruolz alloys for false jewelry 224 

Maillechorts . . - . . '. . . . . 225 

Electrum 227 



XX 



CONTENTS. 



Tutenag ..... 
Best alloy for beauty, lustre, &c 
Alf6nide ..... 
Alloys of Mr. Toucas . 
English tutania (white metal) 
German tutania " " 
Spanish tutania " " 
Engestrum tutania 
Queen's metal .... 
Algiers metal .... 
Metal argentin (silver-like metal) 

Minofor 

Britannia metals .... 
Plate pewter .... 
Ashberry metal .... 
English metal . 
Mock gold, or false gold 
Ductile alloy of gold with platinum 
Alloy for mirrors 
Metals for cutlery 



CHAPTER X. 



WHITE ALLOY! 



English alloys for casts from engravings, stereotypes, &c, 



Pewter 

Algiers metal 

Another alloy 

Alloy for seats of stopcocks 

" plugs of stopcocks 

" keys of flutes, clarionets, etc. 

Hard tin 

Kustitien metal for tinning . 
English hard white metal (common) 
Mock platinum, or false platinum 



CONTENTS. 






XXI 


PAGE 


Imitation of silver . . . . • . . . . 240 


"White metal, called Prince's metal . 




. 240 


White copper, or white tombac . 




. 240 


Various alloys for buttons .... 




. 241 


Yogel's alloy for polishing steel . 




. 241 


CHAPTER XL 


FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 


The alloy of Darcet or of Rose 242 


Darcet's alloys . 243 


Fusible combinations of bismuth, lead, and tin, with table 


of points of fusion of different combinations, by MM. 


Parker and Martin . ■ 244 


Alloys of lead and bismuth 






. 244 


" bismuth and tin . 






. 244 


" bismuth, lead, and zinc 






. 245 


Amalgam of lead, bismuth, and mercury . 






. 245 


Mackenzie's alloy fusible by friction . 






. 245 


A very fusible alloy for casts 






. 245 


Alloy for silvering glass globes . 






. 245 


" fusible teaspoons, &c. . 






. 246 


Other fusible alloys .... 






. 246 


The Appold alloys .... 






. 246 



CHAPTER XII. 



ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ANTI-FRICTION METALS, ETC. 

Bronze for pumps, pillow blocks, nuts, &c. . . . 247 
Alloys for blocks of connecting rods and collars for eccen- 
trics 247 

" journals of locomotive driving axles (English) . 248 

" blocks with collars of connecting rods . . 248 

Bronze for pistons 248 

Alloy for locomotive axle journals 249 

" journals of cranes, winches, &c, as required by 

the Northern Railway of France . . . 249 



XX11 



CONTENTS. 



Alloy for journals of wagons 

" locomotive whistles 

Mild alloy for pumps, clappers or valves, and stopcocks . 
Bronze for ball valves and pieces to be brazed . 

Alloy for cleaning plugs 

Hard alloy for bearings of merchandise and ballast wagons 
Alloys employed at the works of Seraing for Belgian loco- 
motives . . .■ ....... 

Bronze for journals of locomotive driving axles 
" blocks of side valve connecting rods 

" regulators .... 

" stuffing boxes . 

" pistons .... 

Brass for turners .... 

Brasses employed in the French navy 

Fenton alloys 

White alloys 

" for lining journal boxes, collars, pillow blocks 

etc. .... 
" for small journals . 

" for bearings . 

" to be cast directly in journal 

Soft alloy for pillow blocks . 

Vaucher's alloy 

Alloys of Goldsmith and Dewrance . 

Anti-friction metals of Morries-Stirling and of Muntz 



boxes 



PAGSR 

249 
250 
250 
250 
250 
251 

251 
251 
251 
251 
252 
252 
252 
253 
253 
254 

255 
256 
256 
257 
257 
257 
258 
258 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SOLDERS. 



Solders for iron 261 

Hard solder for tubes of pure copper .... 261 

Middling hard solder . ... . . . . . 261 

Hard solder for small and thin pieces .... 262 

Middling hard solder for small pieces of brass . . .262 
" " for tubes of brass or of thin copper . 26? 



CONTENTS. 



XX111 



Middling hard solder for soldering the ends of brass 
together, or to flanges . 
" " for uniting brass tubes along 



tubes 



their 



262 



lengths. 






. 263 


Other solders for pure copper . 






. 263 


Soft solders 






. 263 


Solder for plumbers . 






. 263 


Soft solder ..... 






. 263 


Solder for tinned iron . 






. 264 


" pewter 






. 264 


Alloy for sealing up iron in stone 






. 264 


Zinc solders . - . 






. 264 


Soft solders of bismuth, tin, and lead 




. 264 


Solders for jewelry and the precious metals 




. 264 


Hard solder for gold 




. 265 


" for silver 




. 265 


Other silver solders 




. 266 


Solder for platinum 




. 266 


Hard solder for aluminium bronze 




. 266 


Middling hard solder for aluminium bronze 




. 266 


Soft solder for aluminium bronze 




. 267 


Solder for German silver .... 




. 267 


Silver solder for plated ware 




. 267 


Amalgam of copper . 






. 267 



CHAPTER XIV. 

MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

Alloys for small patterns in foundries 
Plastic alloys 
KraflVs alloy 
Homberg's alloy . 
Alloy of Valentin Rose 

" Rose (father) 
The martial regulus . 
Expansion metal 



268 
268 
269 
269 
269 
269 
269 
270 



XXIV 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Amalgam for varnishing plaster casts . . . .270 

" silvering glass globes, &c. . . . .270 

Alloy for tinning ........ 271 

Amalgam of cadmium and tin for dentists . . . 271 

Alloy of Mr. Bibra for small casts . . . . .272 

Mr. Gersnein . . . ' . . . .272 

Alloy for roller scrapers ....... 273 

Yiolet alloy, susceptible of a fine polish .... 274 

Amalgam for electrical machines ..... 274 

Liquid for amalgamating the zinc of galvanic batteries . 274 
Tables showing the relative values of French and English 
weights and measures, &c. ...... 275 



Index 283 



PRACTICAL GUIDE 



MANUFACTURE OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 



PART I. 
I. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE METALS WHICH 
ARE COMMONLY USED FOR ALLOYS. 

The metals which we are about to consider are those 
of the first three classes, as indicated in our introduc- 
tion. 

These metals, whatever be their value or usefulness, 
are entitled to a certain degree of importance in manu- 
factures. 

Although some of them have been long known and 
some are modern, all have been sufficiently well studied ; 
and it is not necessary for us to point out all their 
acknowledged characteristics. 

At every epoch in the study of metals, recourse has 
been had, as at present, to certain combinations which 
exhibit their usefulness in every respect. 

Used in the pure state, that is to say, without having 

been alloyed with other metals which would impart to 

them particular qualities, these metals would have few 

applications in industry; we must, however, except 

2 



14 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOB METALLIC ALLOYS. 

iron, which by itself may be applied to innumerable 
uses. 

On the contrary, when forming some of those thou- 
sands of combinations resulting from their union with 
each other, certain metals, such as copper, tin, and lead, 
which by themselves would be of secondary interest in 
the arts, acquire an enormous importance as soon as 
they are alloyed. 

Thence we see all the interest attached to the study 
of alloys, which requires the aid both of science and 
practice for improvement and progress. 

However, it is necessary that all of our readers who 
are interested in this study should have presented to 
them some general data concerning the characteristics 
and properties of the metals which are the component 
parts of alloys. 

We admit that most of our readers possess this in- 
formation : but memory might fail some of them, and 
some essential though elementary details may escape 
others. Nevertheless, a book like this should be - com- 
plete, and it ought to include all the rudiments abso- 
lutely necessary for the understanding of the subject, 
without the trouble of searching for the information in 
other books. 

The metals which we are about to consider are: — 

Copper. 

Tin. 

Zinc. 

Lead. 

Iron. 

Bismuth. 

Antimony. 

Nickel. 

Arsenic. 

Mercury. 

Gold. 



COPPER — TIN". 15 

Silver. 

Platinum. 

Aluminium. 

We shall give a cursory glance at each of these 
metals, in the order in which they have been named. 

Copper. 

Copper is one of the oldest known metals. Its color 
is brown pink or a brilliant brown red, and presents 
shades varying from yellow to red, according to the 
purity of the metal. A good ingot copper has a metal- 
lic appearance with a bright and regular glitter, and 
without brown or black spots; its grain is fine, close, 
without hard portions, and is easily abraded by the 
file. 

The specific gravity of copper varies between 8.8 
and 8.9. It is feebly sonorous, and its smell and savor 
are little appreciable, but very unpleasant. It is malle- 
able, ductile, and tenacious. Strongly heated, although 
but slightly volatile, it gives off a fine green vapor. 
Heated in contact with the air, it readily becomes 
largely oxidized, and loses part of its ductility and 
malleability. Exposure to a damp atmosphere pro- 
duces on its surface a greenish pellicle of an oxide 
called verdigris. It is attacked more or less rapidly 
by acids, and is easily dissolved by nitric acid. 

Copper may be readily alloyed with other metals; 
except iron and lead, the alloys with which are diffi- 
cult to form. 



Tin. 

Tin appears to be the oldest metal employed in the 
arts, and is mentioned in the history of the earliest 
ages. White, and with a lustre nearly as brilliant as 



16 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

that of silver, it tarnishes more easily and rapidly than 
the latter metal. 

Its specific gravity varies between 7.3 and 7.5, 
whether it is cast, hammered, or laminated. 

Tin, when bent, produces a peculiar crackling noise, 
which may be made use of for ascertaining the purity 
of the metal. Certain sorts of tin are pure, such as 
the Banca, Straits, or Malacca ingots, as were also 
some English marks, which are now seldom found 
in the trade in a pure state. Those tins which are 
adulterated with foreign metals, such as lead, iron, 
copper, and arsenic, may be recognized not only by a 
difference in the crackling noise, but also by a dull 
appearance and a more or less radiated surface, accord- 
ing to the greater or less quantity of foreign matters. 

The smell and savor of tin are very perceptible and 
unpleasant. This metal is tenacious, ductile, and very 
malleable ; when pure, it is very soft, but less so than 
lead. Without being volatile, it is rapidly oxidized 
when kept for a long time in a state of fusion, with 
free access to the air. It is corroded by acids, which, 
acting upon its surface, produce a metallic crystalline 
appearance. 

It is decomposed by nitric, su]phuric, and muriatic 
acids, and may be combined and alloyed with most of 
the metals employed in manufactures. 

Zinc. 

Zinc, sometimes called Spelter, was possibly em- 
ployed by the ancients in the state of alloy, by com- 
bining its ores with copper, tin, and lead ; but as 
a metal it was not known until a long time after the 
metals we have just named. Even as regards its uses 
in industry, zinc has been employed only since the 
beginning of this century. 

Zinc is bluish- white, and the color of its surface is 



LEAD. 17 

similar to that of lead. It has a crystalline fracture 
with large radiating laminae, which tarnish in the air. 

Its specific gravity varies between 6.9 and 7.2. 

Very malleable at a temperature ranging between 
120 and 150 degrees centigrade, it is very brittle beyond 
these limits. At about 300° C. it becomes so brittle 
that it is possible to pulverize it. Compared with 
other metals, zinc is soft and possesses little tenacity ; 
it is not sonorous, and its smell and savor are peculiar, 
although not very perceptible. 

When melted, zinc is quickly oxidized by air ; and, 
if the temperature is raised above that of fusion, it 
will volatilize rapidly and its vapors will burn, pro- 
ducing a flaring light and white fumes much like cot- 
ton flakes. 

By the action of the air, zinc is easily oxidized at 
first ; but soon the oxidation ceases. 

Acids, even diluted, attack zinc rapidly. Caustic 
alkalies will also oxidize and dissolve it. This metal 
may be alloyed with most of the usual metals. 

Lead. 

Lead, a metal known to the ancients at the same 
time as copper and tin, is bluish-white, has a very bril- 
liant lustre when freshly cut, but becomes quickly tar- 
nished. Malleable and ductile, this metal possesses little 
tenacity ; without savor, it has a sensible and peculiar 
odor. It is so soft that it may be scratched by the 
nail, and leaves a gray streak when rubbed against 
wood, metals, and paper. Its specific gravity is 11.445. 
It tarnishes rapidly in contact with the air, and becomes 
covered with a dark pellicle, which, after a certain lapse 
of time, turns grayish-white. When melted, it may 
be rapidly oxidized, if it is stirred, and the air has 
free access to the surface of the molten metal. The 
more the temperature is increased, the more rapidly 



18 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the oxidation goes on. At a red heat, lead burns 
with a flame of a livid white. Nitric acid and aqua 
regia, even when diluted, attack it easily. Sulphuric 
and muriatic acids have little action upon it, when 
cold. 

Lead may be alloyed with most of the metals. How- 
ever, such alloys are difficult to form when the spe- 
cific gravities and temperatures of fusion of the other 
metals are very different from those of its own. Lead 
has a great affinity for gold and silver. Industry 
utilizes this property for separating, by cupellation, 
gold and silver from the other metals and earths which 
accompany them. 

Iron. 

Although Iron was well known to the ancients, it is 
only in modern times that its production and use began 
to be developed. This metal, which at present, in its 
various states of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, is 
foremost among the metals employed in the arts, has 
received a prodigious development, mostly in the pre- 
sent century. 

It is bluish-gray or grayish-white when granular or 
laminated, and its lustre is bright or dull, according 
as it has been drawn or cast. Its hardness, tenacity, 
ductility, and malleability vary also with its various 
states. Cast or raw iron is hard and brittle, whereas 
wrought iron and steel are exceedingly resisting, mal- 
leable, and ductile. The specific gravity of pig-iron 
is 7.20, and that of iron or steel rises to 7.7 and 7.9. 

Iron is very easily oxidized ; in a damp atmosphere 
the rust has a very destructive action, and necessitates 
the employment of varnishes and other preservative 
coatings. In the molten state, or at a red heat, iron, 
when in contact with the air, is rapidly oxidized. Acids 
attack and dissolve it easily ; and this metal, notvvith- 



BISMUTH. 19 

standing its qualities point to a great stability and 
durability, requires to have its outer surface protected 
against destructive agents. 

Iron does not alloy well with most of the metals ; a 
peculiar state and the high temperature necessary for 
its fusion, etc., are hindrances to its being easily alloyed. 

Bismuth. 

Bismuth does not seem to have been known by the 
ancients. Agricola is the first author who mentions it, 
in a book published in 1546. The discovery of this 
metal appears, therefore, to date from the sixteenth cen- 
tury. 

Bismuth has a grayish-white color, shading to that 
of red. Its fracture is lamellar, and it possesses neither 
smell nor savor. Its specific gravity varies between 
9.83 and 9.89. This metal, as found in the trade, is 
brittle, with little tenacity, and without any ductility or 
malleability. 

Of all metals, bismuth possesses the greatest facility 
for crystallizing. When cooled slowly, the crystals 
it produces are remarkable by their size, their cubic 
shape, and their peculiar lustre. 

This metal is very fusible, volatile, and oxidizable 
at a high temperature, like many metals which are not 
refractory. In a damp atmosphere it becomes covered 
with a reddish-brown pellicle of oxide. At a red heat 
it burns with a bluish flame, and produces fumes of a 
yellow-red color. 

The high price of bismuth limits its uses. This 
metal is mostly employed for fusible alloys and those 
of typography, where the metals usually combined 
with it are lead, tin, antimony, etc. 



20 practical guide for metallic alloys. 

Antimony. 

Antimony is of relatively limited use in industry, 
except for certain special alloys. Its color is silver- 
white, shading to a bluish-white ; its fracture is entirely 
lamellar, and it is so brittle and friable that it can be 
easily pulverized. According to its degree of purity, 
its specific gravity varies from 6.65 to 6.85. 

Antimony melts at a temperature below that of a 
red heat, and fills the air with thick white fumes. Di- 
luted or concentrated nitric acid attacks it, and allows 
its separation, whether from its ores or from its alloys. 
However, these alloys are few, and used principally for 
printing-types, plates for engraving music, and certain 
compouuds of lead, tin, and antimony, to which small 
quantities of copper and bismuth are sometimes added. 
\ Antimony is employed in medicine and pharmacy. 
In the treatment of metals, it is used in the metallic 
state, and is generally known under the name of regu- 
lus of antimony. Gold, when exposed to the vapors 
of antimony, immediately loses its ductility and malle- 
ability, and becomes as brittle as antimony itself. 

Nickel. 

Nickel was discovered by Cronstedt at about the 
middle of the eighteenth century. It has a grayish- 
white color nearly like that of platinum, and its frac- 
ture is crooked. Its specific gravity varies between 
8.4 and 8.8, according to the degree of compression it 
has been subjected to. Worked when hot, it takes a 
fibrous structure, and may be forged and laminated. 
Its hardness is very nearly that of iron ; and it may 
be easily polished, acquiring a great brightness by this 
operation. 

Nickel does not oxidize or tarnish at the ordinary 
temperature; even when hot, it is slowly and with 



ARSENIC — MERCURY. 21 

difficulty that it becomes oxidized. This property- 
furnishes a reason for several countries having intro- 
duced the use of nickel in the manufacture of small coin. 
Nickel alloys very well with copper, tin, zinc, anti- 
mony, iron, cobalt, etc., and is especially employed for 
those alloys which imitate or replace silver. 

Arsenic. 

Arsenic, which chemists place among the metalloids, 
possesses in the metallic state a steel-gray color, which 
quickly tarnishes. It is seldom employed in this form. 
It is very brittle, fuses readily, and is then immediately 
volatilized, unless the fusion be effected in closed ves- 
sels. Heated in contact with the air, it burns with a 
blue flame, emits a garlic odor, and becomes converted 
into a white volatile substance, which is the white 
arsenic, or arsenious acid. White arsenic is more 
soluble in hydrochloric acid than in water. Its uses 
are for a few pharmaceutical preparations, the manu- 
facture of fine glass, such as Bohemian glassware, that 
of Sheele's green, and of other greens employed in 
dyeing. _ 

Arsenic is rarely alloyed. However, it is employed 
in the composition of telescope mirrors, and of some 
other metallic combinations which are seldom used, 
and which will be noticed hereafter. Its specific gravity 
is 5.63. 

Mercury. 

Mercury, sometimes called Quicksilver, is as bright 
and nearly as white as silver. Fluid at the ordinary 
temperature, it becomes solid at 39 J° C. below the 
freezing point. In this state it possesses some tena- 
city and malleability. Liquid mercury has neither 
taste nor smell. It transmits heat well, and expands 
considerably. It does not " wet," that is to say, has no 



22 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

molecular attraction for many substances. Its specific 
gravity when solid is 14.39, when fluid 13.60, and in 
vapor 6.976. 

Heated in contact with the air, at from 350° to 360° 
C, which is nearly its point of ebullition, it is trans- 
formed into a red oxide. 

Like porous substances, mercury absorbs a certain 
quantity of air and dampness, which cannot be ex- 
pelled except by ebullition. Everybody knows the 
sensation of burning produced by the melting of solid 
mercury in contact with a portion of the human body; 
also the disorders it occasions when introduced into 
the human economy. We shall not enlarge on these 
phenomena, which are foreign to this book. 

Most acids are without action upon this metal, 
although it is dissolved, with evolution of sulphurous 
and nitrous fumes, by concentrated sulphuric or nitric 
acid. 

In the metallic state, mercury is employed in phar- 
macy; in the construction of barometers, thermometers, 
and manometers; in tinning looking glasses; in amal- 
gamating silver and gold ; in producing various colors 
for the arts ; in the manufacture of the fulminate for 
percussion-caps, etc. 

Its alloys, which bear the name of Amalgams, are 
formed with nearly all metals, especially with copper, 
lead, zinc, tin, bismuth, silver, and gold. It does not 
amalgamate, or rather combines with difficulty, with 
iron, nickel, platinum, cobalt, manganese, etc. 

Gold. 

Gold is one of the metals known in the earliest ages. 
Its precious qualities of unalterability, ductility, and 
rarity have made it the most valuable metal from the 
beginning of the world. 

Gold is of a fine yellow, somewhat reddish color. 



SILVER. 23 

It Las neither smell nor taste; it is the most ductile, 
malleable, and the least oxidizable of all metals. Its 
specific gravity varies from 19.26 to 19.37, whether 
melted or laminated or hammered. 

Nitric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids do not at- 
tack it; but it is dissolved by aqua regia (a mixture 
of nitric and hydrochloric acids), and by the alkaline 
polysulphides. At a very high temperature, gold is 
volatilized with a green flame. 

The alloys of gold would be easy with most metals; 
however, they are limited on account of the price of 
gold, and, therefore, are only those where gold is the 
essential portion of the alloy. 

Silver. 

Silver, which ranks next to gold among precious 
metals, has an origin and uses which are not so old 
as those of gold, although dating from an early age. 

Its texture is of a dead white color, which will re- 
ceive a brilliant polish. On account of its malleability, 
ductility, and resistance to oxidation, it, like gold, is 
one of the most precious and remarkable metals. 

Its specific gravity varies from 10.47 to 10.-15, ac- 
cording to the treatment to which it has been previ- 
ously submitted. 

Unacted upon by air alone, silver, under the influ- 
ence of a very great heat, becomes rapidly volatilized, 
emitting greenish fumes. 

Nitric acid dissolves silver, which thus furnishes 
several products to medicine and the arts. 

The alloys of silver are possible with most of the 
metals; but, like those of gold, are limited to a certain 
number of compounds which are employed for the 
manufacture of articles of luxury. 



24 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Platinum. 

Platinum, or Platina, according to recent researches 
published in Germany, was known by the Eomans. 
Its uses, however, were quite ignored and very few; and 
it was only in the middle of the last century that, by the 
exertions of learned manufacturers, it became generally 
known. 

Platinum is grayish-white, and acquires by a polish 
a brightness, which, however, does not last. This metal 
is without smell or taste, and possesses tenacity, malle- 
ability, and ductility. Its hardness and elasticity are 
greatly improved by the addition of a very small pro- 
portion of iridium. Its specific gravity is 21.50. 

Of all the metals, platinum has the smallest dilatation, 
and is the most difficult to fuse. It becomes soft at a 
white heat, and in that state may be forged and welded; 
but its fusion at present can only be effected by the use 
of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. This and its high 
price have prevented this metal from being applied to 
many industrial uses. 

Platinum is dissolved by nitric acid, when alloyed 
with an excess of silver ; it is also dissolved by aqua 
regia. Caustic alkalies, nitre, alkaline persulphides, 
phosphorus, arsenic, and chlorine attack it more or less 
rapidly, with the aid of heat. 

The alloys of platinum with most of the metals 
would certainly be employed, were not its infusibility 
and its cost a drawback to a general use. 

Aluminium. 

Aluminum, or Aluminium, is of an entirely recent 
origin; and its employment in the arts dates back only 
a few years. The industrial development of aluminum 
is especially due to M. Sainte-Claire-Deville. 

Although the uses of this metal have not yet reached 



ALUMINIUM. 25 

their culminating point, we may foresee that it will be 
very serviceable. 

Already, its manufacture is no longer confined to 
the limits of the experimental laboratory, its price 
has considerably decreased, and various trials have 
shown its usefulness in certain manufactures. The 
great lightness of aluminium, its malleability, ductility, 
and difficult oxidation, have retained it for certain uses, 
but not so many as were expected when it made its 
appearance in the arts. The specific gravity of alumi- 
nium, which does not exceed 2.6, is a characteristic of 
this metal. Gray, and capable of acquiring a bright, 
although not lasting polish, aluminium would be more 
generally employed, were it not so soft, dull in lustre, 
and expensive. 

The chemical properties of aluminium would seem 
to favor its uses in industry. It is unacted upon by 
cold nitric and sulphuric acids, by air, water, and steam. 
Hydrochloric acid dissolves it. 

It appears to alloy with many metals, especially 
with copper, producing certain kinds of bronzes of 
which we shall speak hereafter, and which already 
are among the important uses of aluminium. 

Generalities, Tables, and Data. 

The following tables, borrowed from different authors 
who have copied from their predecessors, and who could, 
no more than ourselves, guarantee the accuracy and 
authenticity of the figures, will terminate all that we 
have to say concerning the physical and chemical pro- 
perties of the metals which we have briefly considered. 

We advise the reader to consider, as we do, these 

numbers only as data for relative comparisons, rather 

than as entirely correct results. This is certainly to 

be done, when we look at certain points which need 

3 



26 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the verification of experience, for it would not be pos- 
sible to admit them without raising certain doubts. 









00 


►» 




















































!>.=* 






u 


u 










■2 £ 


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Metals. 


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to 

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© ei 
a £ 


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B n 
© "2 


a 


P, 
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s 




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p. 

CO 




0. c. 








kilo. 








Copper 


1090 


6 


6 


3 


137 


898 


« 


8.88 


Tin 


230 


10 


8 


4 


16 


303 


« 


7.29 


Zinc 


410 


4 


7 


7 


50 


363 


« 


6.86 


Lead 


320 


11 


9 


6 


12 


180 


<« 


11 35 


Iron 


1500 


2 


4 


8 


250 


374 


650 


7.81 


Cast iron 


1200 


« 


a 


<( 


M 


a 


« 


7.21 


Bismuth 


270 


9 


« 


<< 


(( 


it 


a 


9.82 


Antimony 


690 


3 


(« 


(i 


« 


« 


(( 


6.71 


Nickel 


M 


1 


5 


9 


48 


t< 


(( 


8.38 


Arsenic 


(( 


u 


« 


(< 


« 


k 


" 


5.63 


Mercury 


Solidifi- 
cation. 
3910— 


- 12 


M 


«< 


« 


<( 


100- 


' liquid. 
13.60 
solid. 
14.39 


Gold 


1000 


7 


1 


1 


68 


1000 


3975 
5152 


19.36 




1000 


8 


2 


2 


85 


973 

981 


10.47 
21.50 


Platinum 


2000 


5 


3 


5 


125 


855 


Aluminium... 


760 


« 


<( 


« 


90 


(< 


« 


2.60 



METALS. 



27 







Resistance to frac- 


Coefficient of elas- 






ture, IN KILOGRAMMES, 


tic ity according to 






AND PER SQUARE MILLI- 


the 




Metals. 


Specific 
gravity. 


METRE. 


























Longitudi- 








Slow. 


Sudden. 


nal vibra- 
tions. 


Exten- 
sions. 


Lead, cast 


11.21 


1.25 


2.21 


1993 


1775 


Lead, drawn 


11.17 


2.07 


2.36 


2278 


1803 


Lead, annealed 


11.23 


1.80 


2.04 


2146 


1727.5 


Tin, cast 


7.40 


3.40 


4.16 


4643 


« 


Tin, drawn 


7.31 

7.29 


2.45 

1.70 


3.00 
3.60 


4006 

4418 


<< 


Tin, annealed 


it 




18.51 
18.03 


27.00 
10.08 


27.05 
11.00 


8599 
6372 


8131.5 


Gold, annealed 


5584.6 




10 37 


29.00 


29.60 


7576 


7357. 7 
7140.5 


Silver, annealed 


10.30 


16.02 


16.40 


7242 




7.13 
7.10 


1.50 
12.80 


15.77 


7536 
9555 


M 


Zinc, drawn 


8734.5 


Zinc, annealed 


7.06 


(t 


14.00 


9272 


a 


Copper, drawn 


8.93 


40.30 


41.00 


12536 


12459 


Copper, annealed... 


8.94 


30.54 


31.60 


12540 


10519 


Platinum, drawn.... 


21.25 


34.10 


35.00 


16159 


« 


Platinum, annealed 


21.20 


23.50 


26.40 


15560 


a 


Iron, drawn 


7.75 


61.10 


64.00 


19903 


20869 


Iron, annealed 


7.76 


46.88 


50.25 


19925 


20794 


Steel wire 


7.72 


70.00 


87.80 


19445 


18809 


Steel wire, annealed 


7.62 


40.00 


53.90 


19200 


17278 


Nickel, pure. 


u 


90.00 


it 


<< 


u 


Cobalt 


« 


115.00 


(( 


it 


It 


Antimony, cast 


6.71 


u 


0.67 


(( 


16 


Bismuth, cast 


9.82 


(( 


0.97 


«( 


It 







Note. — This table and t,he following one are bor- 
rowed from the interesting researches of Mr. Wertheim 
on the physical properties of alloys. The results 
given are certainly not free from errors ; the notable 
differences between substances whose analogy is too 
great for allowing much diversity in their relative re- 
sistance and elasticity, is a proof that all the numbers 
are not sufficiently accurate. 

At all events, besides an indication of the specific 
gravity of alloys which few authors have presented so 



28 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

completely, we find in these tables very interesting 
data and comparisons for study. When we compare 
the results of experience with the figures found by cal- 
culating, according to the proportion of each metal 
forming an alloy, we do not find enough regularity to 
allow us to form a rule by which we may foresee what 
will be the result of a change in the proportions of the 
compound. Nevertheless, in practice, we will admit 
that the coefficient of elasticity may be approxima- 
tive^ deducted from those of the component metals. 

Mr. Laboulaye, in his Dictionnaire des Arts et Manu- 
factures, where the question of alloys is treated to a 
certain extent, is astonished because we have not made 
accurate experiments for arriving, by figures, at the 
relative value of alloys, as regards their physical quali- 
ties, resistance, elasticity, etc. The researches of Mr. 
Wertheim, though incomplete and insufficient in their 
results, were made in that direction, and are certainly 
a progress ; but when we come to examine what that 
work has produced, notwithstanding the conscientious 
care with which it was done, we must acknowledge 
that, for some time to come, the alloys will not be studied 
in the way recommended by Mr. Laboulaye. There 
are so many unforeseen circumstances, happening even 
when studying isolated metals, which leave in the 
dark many important questions, after numberless ex- 
periments, that we must not be astonished at the diffi- 
culties encountered by those who experiment on alloys. 



ALLOYS. 



29 











o . 


a> r^ 








*bi 


a§ 


fl'a 




Alloys. 


& 60 


.2 "5 a 


S a 


SZ 6 

S «S u 


Lead. 


68.50 


[Tin 


31.50 




10.073 


2596 


0.552 


k. 
0.93 


« 


63.80 


« 


36.20 




9.408 


2969 


2.077 


2.46 


« 


42.50 


<< 


57.40 




8.750 


3512 


1.591 


2.07 


<( 


33.25 


<< 


66.75 




8.378 


3700 


0.340 


1.07 


Lead. 


62.40 


Bismuth.. 


37.60 




11.037 


2021 


0.262 


1.52 


« 


50.00 


" 


50.00 




18.790 


2367 


0.440 


1.79 


«( 


33.33 


<< 


66.66 




10.403 


2838 


0.025 


5.22 


Lead. 


76 00 


Antimony 


24.00 




10.101 


2183 


a 


1.87 


i« 


62.00 


« 


38.00 




10.064 


2592 


it 


5.59 


a 


43.00 


« 


57.00 




8.946 


3242 


a 


« 


<( 


35.00 


<( 


65.00 




8.499 


3536 


it 


« 


Lead. 


95.40 


Gold 


4.60 




11.301 


2227 


0.055 


4.74 


Lead . 


48.00 


Silver .... 


52.00 




10.743 


3095 


« 


<( 


Lead. 


98.85 


Platinum. 


1.15 




11.473 


2684 


0.026 


1.65 


u 


85.00 


« 


15.00 




12.207 


3107 


« 


<( 


Lead . 


95,00 


Zinc 


5.00 




11.195 


2144 


0.069 


2.75 


a 


92.20 


H 


7.80 




11.172 


2493 


0.060 


2.02 


it 


87.00 


(( 


13.00 




11.130 


2833 


0.060 


2.02 


tt 


76.30 


<( 


23.70 




9.430 


4007 


« 


3.47 


tt 


68.20 


it 


31.80 




9.043 


6647 


n 


3.40 


tt 


39.00 


It 


61.00 




8.397 


6108 


tt 


« 


tt 


24.00 


It 


76.00 




7.910 


7352 


0.004 


4.40 


Lead. 


94.20 


Copper ... 


5.80 




11.165 


2113 


0.043 


2.13 


Tin ... 


33.00 


Bismuth . 


66.00 




8.68 


3610 


0.028 


8.19 


it 


54.60 


a 


45.40 




8.89 


2874 


0.015 


6.63 


Tin... 


78.50 


Antimony 


21.50 




7.21 


4033 


a 


8.86 


tt 


66.00 


« 


44.00 




7.05 


4695 


0.010 


7.82 


tt 


67.70 


a 


42.30 




7.007 


5168 


(( 


(< 


Tin ... 


78.50 


Zinc 


21 60 




7.366 


5336 


0.246 


5.78 


" 


73.40 


« 


26.60 




7.255 


5982 


0.252 


5.00 


<( 


64.00 


<( 


36.00 




7.143 


6453 


0.036 


4.68 


« 


48.00 


a 


52.00 




7.193 


7113 


0.124 


2.44 


a 


37.50 


tt 


62.50 




6.746 


6976 


0.082 


4.32 


tt 


26.70 


a 


73.30 




6.957 


7314 


0.023 


7.52 


Tin ... 


96.70 


Platinum 


3.30 




7.578 


5309 


a 


4.75 


Tin ... 


61.60 


Copper.... 


38.40 




8.332 


6113 


a 


<« 


« 


48.30 


tt 


51.70 




8.531 


8280 


tt 


« 


it 


21.00 


it 


79.00 




8.813 


9784 


tt 


<( 


u 


7.80 


tt 


82.20 




8.738 


« 


tt 


tt 


Tin... 


98.20 


Iron 


1.80 




7.266 


4881 


tt 


it 



a* 



30 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 







«M >> 


<M 


h a 






a ^o 


b| 




Alloys. 


■si 
1* 


151 


13 "S3 

s a 


a 
.2 £ a?" 

IP 


Silver. 


94.50 


Copper.... 


5.50 




10.121 


8913 


tt 


k. 
44.05 


a 


87.40 


n 


22.60 




9.603 


85900.002 


51.97 


Gold.. 


78.20 


Platinum. 


21.80 




19.650 


9844 " 


7.12 


Gold.. 


97.25 


Iron 


2.75 




18.842 


9024 0.016 


20.41 


Zinc. 


76.80 


Copper.... 


23.20 




7.301 


7678 


<( 


4.10 


« 


51.50 


u 


48.50 




8.265 


8774 


(t 


18.68 


(< 


43 30 


it 


56.70 




8.310 


9105 


(( 


36.80 


<« 


33.75 


n 


65.25 




8.606 


10163 


« 


60.20 


a 


14.60 


u 


85.40 




8.636 


9778 0.001 


51.90 


Lead. 


57.00 


Antimony 


18.00 


Tin. 25.00 


9.196 


27350.032 


7.80 


Lead. 


44.50 


Bismuth . 


47.80 


Tin. 17.70 


9.795 


2626 0.695 


1.74 


Lead . 


73.00 


Tin 


12.00 


Zinc 15.00 


10.212 


2486 


0.162 


1.44 


Tin ... 


51.00 


Antimony 


28.00 


Cop. 21.00 


7.751 


5770 


«< 


4.17 


Zinc. 


35.00 


Copper.... 


57.50 


Nickel 7.50 


8.403 9517 


0.001 


<( 


« 


18.60 


<( 


60.00 


" 21.40 


8.541 10227 0.001 


61.88 


a 


37.00 


a 


43.00 


" 20.00 


8.436 11722 0.001 


55.00 


a 


21.00 


u 


50.60 


" 8.40 


8.615 12250,0.002 


68.10 



PHYSICAL AND 



II. 

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF 
ALLOYS. 



It is to be understood that the following indications 
must be considered only from a general point of view. 
When stating the properties acquired by the alloys of 
metals, we must eliminate those anomalies presented by 
certain combinations, which are outside of the general 
limits in which the experimenter works. 

Fusibility. — The alloys are generally more fusible 
than the least fusible of the component metals, and 
very often more fusible than any of them taken sepa- 
rately. The alloy of Darcet or of Rose, which is a com- 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 31 

pound of tin, lead, and bismuth, in variable proportions, 
is a striking example of the principle we have set forth. 

Thus, admitting that — 

Tin melts at 280° C. ; 

Lead at 320° ; 
and Bismuth at 270° ; most of the alloys made with 
these three metals will melt below 100° C. (boiling 
water).* 

However, we must observe that all the alloys do 
not exactly follow this rule, which is true especially 
for certain white metals, as those we have named, and 
to which we must add antimony and arsenic. 

Hardness. — Alloys are generally harder and more 
brittle than the hardest and most brittle of the com- 
ponent metals. Certain soft metals, such as lead, for 
instance, increase the hardness of the metals with which 
they are alloyed. Thus, in an alloy of lead and tin, 
lead may sensibly increase the hardness of tin. 

Ductility. — Tenacity. — A few metals, employed sin- 
gly or united, increase the ductility and tenacity of 
other metals which are deficient in this respect. How- 
ever, most alloys have a ductility and tenacity less 
than that of the most ductile and tenacious of the com- 
ponent metals. 

The crystalline structure of alloys has a great in- 
fluence on their tenacity. Certain alloys, whose crys- 
tallization presents large grains, must be very slowly 
and gradually cooled, if we desire to retain their natu- 
ral tenacity. 

Specific Gravity. — There is no precise law which 
gives the relation between the specific gravity of an 
alloy and that of its component metals. 

The specific gravity of alloys is sometimes above, 
sometimes below, that which would be deduced from 

* All the temperatures given in this work are according to the 
Centigrade scale. 



32 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the specific gravities, and the proportion of the metals 
forming the mixture. 

The specific gravity of an alloy may be expressed 

by the formula a = L. + ^ , in which P and p are 
rd+piJ 

the weights of the metals, and D and d their respective 

specific gravities. 

When there is equality between the result of the 
formula and the specific gravity of the alloy, there is 
neither dilatation nor contraction; but if the specific 
gravity of the alloy, taken by direct experiment, gives 
a number greater or smaller than a, then we arrive at 
the conclusion that there is contraction or dilatation. 

It is hence possible, by the use of the formula, 
checked by direct experiments, to determine the spe- 
cific gravity of a certain number of alloys, and to form 
the following lists of binary alloys which show the 
graduation of the specific gravity. 

I. Alloys, the specific gravity of which is greater 
than the mean specific gravity of the component 
metals : — 

Copper and zinc. 
Copper and tin. 
Copper and bismuth. 
Copper and antimony. 
Lead and antimony. 
Lead and bismuth. 
Silver and zinc. 
Silver and lead. 
Silver and tin. 
Silver and bismuth. 
Silver and antimony. 
Gold and zinc. 
Gold and tin. 
Gold and bismuth. 

II. Alloys, the specific gravity of which is less 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 33 

than the mean specific gravity of the component 
metals : — 

Iron and antimony. 
Iron and lead. 
Iron and bismuth. 
Copper and lead. 
Lead and tin. 
Tin and antimony. 
Zinc and antimony. 
Silver and copper. 
Gold and silver. 
Gold and iron. 
Gold and copper. 
Gold and lead. 

The specific gravity of alloys may give an approxi- 
mate knowledge of the proportion of the component 
metals. For instance, we may ascertain the purity of 
tin by the " trial of the bullet." In a bullet-mould we 
first cast a ball of pure tin, which will serve as a stand- 
ard ; then we cast in the same mould, alloyed tin, and 
the greater or less weight of the balls thus obtained 
indicates a greater or less proportion of lead. 

The experiments of Muschenbroeck on the variations 
of specific gravity of alloys, in which the proportions 
of the component metals were made to vary, would 
seem to show that there is a point where the combi- 
nation is more intimate, and which, very likely, cor- 
responds to alloys in definite proportions* 

We would then be led to admit that the union is 
more complete, and that there is a tendency to conden- 
sation, when the alloy is made of metals having a great 
afiinity for each other. On the other hand, there would 
be a dilatation when the two metals have little affinity 
for each other, and are only mixed. Thus copper, which 
possesses a great affinity for zinc and tin, forms with 

* See the preceding tables by Mr. Wertheim. 



34 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

these metals alloys having a specific gravity greater 
than the mean. 

Elasticity. — Mr. Wertheim, who has closely studied 
the interesting question of alloys, has tried to ascertain 
the ratio which exists between the mechanical proper- 
ties of metals and of alloys, in order to determine the 
molecular disposition of these compounds. 

The alloys were prepared with pure metals; and 
these were carefully mixed, stirred, and cast in heated 
moulds. 

Each alloy was submitted to chemical analysis ; and 
when, by volatilization, oxidation, or liquation, it de- 
parted from the original composition, it was rigorously 
put aside. 

The experiments of Mr. Wertheim were carried on 
with about sixty binary or tertiary alloys used in the 
arts. Among them were many well-known alloys, 
whose mechanical properties had been more or less 
investigated by several authors ; as, for instance, 
bronze, brass, similor, type metal, bell metal, gong 
metal, cymbals, etc. 

The results, as given by Mr. Wertheim, may be 
summed up as follows: — 

1. Alloys behave like single metals, as regards 
vibration and expansion. 

2. The cohesion, and the limit of elasticity or of ex- 
pansion, cannot be determined prima facie from the 
data known for each component metal. 

3. The coefficients of elasticity of alloys agree quite 
well with the average of the coefficients of the compo- 
nent metals. The contractions or dilatations have little 
influence on these coefficients. We may, therefore, 
determine beforehand the composition of an alloy, 
which should have a certain elasticity, or conduct the 
sound with a given velocity ; provided that either of 
these conditions remains between the extreme limits 
of the coefficients of each of the component metals. 



OXIDATION. 35 

4. The coefficient of elasticity is greater as the mole- 
cular arrangement is closer, and the grain finer and 
more homogeneous. 

Specific Heat. — The researches of Mr. Eegnault on 
specific heat have shown that the average specific heat 
of the component metals is sensibly that of the alloys; 
provided that the observations are made at an average 
temperature sufficiently remote from the points of 
fusion and of softening. 

Latent Heat. — Mr. Eudberg, who has made remark- 
able researches on the properties of latent heat, has as- 
certained that, when a melted alloy is allowed to cool, 
the thermometer becomes generally twice stationary 
between the points of fusion and solidification. Of 
these two indications of the thermometer, one is con- 
stant for every alloy of the same two metals, and the 
other varies with their respective proportions. 

Two metals melted together, according to Mr. Eud- 
berg, should form a combination in definite proportions, 
which inclines towards the one in excess. The chemi- 
cal alloy, when alone, becomes solid at a determined 
point, which Mr. Eudberg calls the " constant point." 
But when one of the two metals is in excess, the solidifi- 
cation of the metal and of the alloy does not take place 
at the same point ; the metal in excess, which has a 
tendency to become solid first, loses its latent heat, and 
produces a stoppage in the descent of the thermometer. 
The metal which has first solidified is dispersed through 
the chemical alloy which remains fluid, and this, in its 
turn, becoming solid, causes the second stoppage at the 
thermometer. 

Thus, lead becomes solid at 325° C, tin at 228°; and 
for the alloys of tin, the " constant point," or point of 
fusion of the chemical alloy, remains at 187°. 

Oxidation. — The alloys are not generally so easily 
oxidized as their component metals, when taken singly. 
In some cases, however, oxidation is greater in the 



36 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloys. That of lead and tin, for instance, when lead 
is in excess, burns and becomes oxidized very rapidly 
at a red heat. 

When one of the component metals is easily oxi- 
dized, and is united in an alloy with another metal 
which is not, or very little, oxidable, it is possible to 
separate the metals by transforming the former into an 
oxide, while the latter remains unchanged. This pro- 
perty is the basis of the operation of cupellation, by 
which silver is separated from lead. We may, by a 
similar operation, separate two metals differently oxi- 
dable, the more oxidable being much more rapidly 
oxidized than the other. 

The oxidation of alloys, under the influence of 
atmospheric dampness, is generally less than that of 
the component metal which is the most easily oxidized. 
It happens also, in statuary bronze for instance, that 
the alloy becomes rapidly oxidized at the beginning, 
more so than would the metals, taken singly and simi- 
larly exposed ; but after this first effect, the oxidation 
seems stopped, and is not so destructive as would be 
the case for the isolated metals. 

Although acids appear to act upon the alloys the 
same as upon the principal metal of the composition, 
we must also admit that, after a certain length of time, 
their action will be less destructive for the alloy than 
for each single metal. 



III. 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 

Alloys are made all at once, that is, by combining 
the metals in the same crucible, or in the same furnace, 
in one operation. 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 37 

Or they are made in several operations, that is to 
say, by uniting first two metals, then three, and so on, 
in order to obtain a more complete alloy, by the aid of 
previous combinations already prepared. 

By the first method, which is that generally prac- 
tised, the combination is never so intimate that, not- 
withstanding the care given to the operations of fusion, 
stirring, and casting, we may consider the alloy per- 
fectly dense, regular, and homogeneous in all its parts. 

We arrive at greater accuracy by the second process. 
The combinations made separately of metals having a 
mutual affinity, allow of more precision in the propor- 
tions, and more facility in the formation of complex 
alloys, than would be the case if the metals were added 
one after the other. 

The order in which metals are added to an alloy is 
far from being a matter of indifference. Indeed, it 
would not be sufficient, for obtaining a good result, to 
throw into a crucible, without method or rule or mea- 
sure, metals whose properties of assimilation are too far 
apart to combine in a satisfactory manner. 

In an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc, for instance, it 
is preferable to add the tin to the melted copper, and 
then the zinc, than to introduce the zinc first, and the 
tin afterwards. 

In the quaternary alloy of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, 
we prefer the order in which the names are here stated. 
The lead, especially, is to be added the last. 

Many other examples could be given in assertion of 
this rule, which are worth remembering, and are based 
upon experience and a knowledge of the metals. 

By a ready experiment we may ascertain the truth 
of these principles, and see that the method employed 
for producing an alloy is not without influence. 

Let us combine 10 parts of copper with 90 parts of 
tin, to which we add 10 parts of antimony. On the 
4 



38 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

other band, let us combine 10 parts of copper and 10 
parts of antimony, to which we add 90 parts of tin. 

We have two alloys, which, chemically speaking, 
are the same ; but we may readily ascertain that they 
are widely different as regards fusibility, tenacity, hard- 
ness, etc. These transformations, which appear in 
combinations the component parts and proportions of 
which are the same, are evidently due to a peculiar 
molecular arrangement, produced in the alloy by the 
order in which the component metals have been added. 

In the alloys made in one operation, whatever be 
the care taken in the fusion and the stirring, the 
chance is less for the combination to be homogeneous, 
the greater the difference in the specific gravities of the 
component metals. When casting, there is a "parting" 
or liquation by which the heaviest metal goes to the 
bottom of the mould. 

This liquation is to be seen especially in the alloys 
of copper and tin, which, when the castings are con- 
siderable, retain with great difficulty the same homo- 
geneousness and proportions throughout the full extent 
of the pieces. 

The difference of specific gravity is not the only 
cause which produces the separation in castings at the 
time of cooling. When an alloy begins to congeal, 
there is generally formed a less fusible alloy, which 
becomes solid in proximity to the cooling surfaces, 
and another more fusible and lighter alloy, which has 
a tendency to form an upward current in the centre of 
the piece. 

This separation of metals in a fused alloy causes 
great difficulty in the manufacture of bronze ordnance, 
where the separation of the tin produces whitish spots, 
more fusible than the remainder of the metal, and 
which are melted and removed by the heat of the 
burning powder. 

A rapid and powerful cooling is the only way to 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 39 

prevent such results, which cause the rapid destruction 
of ordnance. The separation is prevented entirely or 
partially if the alloy solidifies as soon as it is placed 
in the mould. 

A slow cooling is always an impediment to the 
homogeneousness of alloys. When it does not pro- 
duce a separation of the metals, it occasions a state of 
crystallization, easily seen, which is always detri- 
mental to the solidity of the metal. 

This crystallization will generally increase the hard- 
ness of the alloy, but impairs its tenacity considerably. 
It appears especially in certain alloys which, retaining 
for a long time a high temperature, when cast are subject 
to settlings and shrinkages. But this crystallization, 
and all its accompanying evils, may be prevented by 
means of large runners, heavy enough to weigh on the 
metal, and by accessory means which aid in a rapid 
cooling, such as shaking the moulds after casting, 
throwing water on certain parts of them, etc. 

However, it is a mistake to believe that, in order to 
obtain a more rapid cooling, it is proper to cast at a 
low temperature those alloys which have a tendency 
to crystallize, to shrink, or to lose their shape. 

All alloys, as a rule, gain by being cast at the highest 
temperature proper to each of them, taking care not to 
increase the loss too much by volatilization or oxida- 
tion. An alloy which is cast when hot, cools off in 
better condition than an alloy which is run into the 
moulds in a pasty state, and is not subject to those 
flaws, blow-holes, and shrinkages to be seen in metals 
the fluidity of which was incomplete. 

The processes of " liquation" employed in the opera- 
tions of metallurgy for extracting certain metals from 
less fusible ones, may not require so thorough and 
regular a heating as is necessary for alloys which are 
to be cast. 

On the one hand, our object is only to extract crude 



40 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

metals, if we may so term them, which are to be melted 
and worked up again ; before they are fit for use in the 
arts. 

On the other hand, we merely require that tempera- 
ture which is necessary for separating from the alloy 
one of the combined metals, which melts, leaving the 
other metal isolated. Thus, for instance, in order to 
separate silver from copper, we begin by melting the 
alloy of silver and copper with such a proportion of 
lead as to have equal parts of copper and lead in the 
compound. Then, by heating up to a certain point, 
two alloys are formed: one which is easily fusible, 
and contains 12 parts of lead for 1 of copper ; and an- 
other which is less fusible, and contains 12 parts of 
copper to 1 of lead. The former melts, carrying with 
it the j| of the silver, which may be extracted by 
cupellation. 

The alloys, as we have already said at the beginning 
of this chapter, may be made at once in one operation, 
or by fractional operations. Binary alloys, having 
their own characteristics, may be used for forming 
other compounds, endowed with other properties. 

If these alloys are combined with only one new 
metal, there generally results a new binary alloy, 
where the first alloy acts like an elementary metal. If 
the combination takes place between two alloys pre- 
viously made, there is formed a new compound whose 
properties may be very different from those of an 
alloy made by combining successively each metal. 

The binary alloys have a real importance in this 
way, that, with them, the peculiar qualities of both 
metals may be turned to the greatest account. But 
these alloys, whether they are wanting in cohesion, 
or because they do not entirely possess those qualities 
required in the arts, should be modified by the ad- 
dition of new metals. These produce a sort of "hy- 
brid" with the former metals of the alloy, and the 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 41 

combinations are quite different from those where the 
metals were united two by two. At all events, such 
alloys are more intimate and homogeneous. 

In general, it is advantageous to introduce into the 
alloys a certain number of elements, even in small pro- 
portions for many of them, and although several of these 
elements would not appear to possess an appreciable 
utility, or have an important effect. The results of 
affinity obtained by the new elements favor the mix- 
tures, increase the density and the homogeneousness, 
at the same time that they sometimes counterbalance, 
with great advantage, the tendency to liquation or 
separation in the melted mass. 

Thus, for instance, a statuary bronze, which could 
be made entirely of copper and tin, acquires new and 
indispensable qualities by the addition of zinc and lead, 
even in small proportions. 

As another example, the alloy of copper and zinc, 
which as such might be suitable for certain uses in the 
arts, becomes much more valuable for these same uses, 
and is improved and completed, by the addition of a 
small proportion of tin or lead. 

The more complex an alloy is to be, the more im- 
portant is it that its preparation should be effected by 
the union of more simple alloys, previously made. Out- 
side of the considerations which guide the founder as 
to the order in which the metals should be melted, such 
as the peculiar conditions of affinity, the similitude in 
the specific gravities and the points of fusion, it is pro- 
per to examine the means and processes by which we 
add to the final melting those metals whose proportions 
in the alloy are comparatively small. 

These various observations will find their confirma- 
tion when, further on, we shall state our researches on 
the alloys of different metals, and examine the princi- 
pal alloys in actual use in the arts. 

As generally practised, the metals to be combined 
4* 



42 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

are melted by processes and in apparatus which vary 
according to the quantity of alloys to be cast, or the 
nature of the metals under treatment. 

The metals easily fusible, such as lead, tin, etc., are 
melted in a ladle, or in wrought or cast iron kettles. 

The more refractory metals are melted in crucibles, 
whose qualities of solidity and resistance to the fire are 
the more sought for, as the metals have a higher point 
of fusion, or are more valuable. 

For gold, silver, and platinum, we require crucibles 
of a superior quality, which will not crack, and thus 
lose in the fire the metals they are intended to receive. 

For copper and its alloys, although requiring cruci- 
bles as solid and lasting as possible, we look more 
towards economy, because the work is frequent and 
regular, and we operate on quantities of less value. 

When the mass of metal becomes considerable, 
whether because many castings are to be made, or 
because of the heavy weight of the pieces, instead of 
the crucibles, we operate in reverberatory furnaces, and 
sometimes in cupolas. 

The processes of melting and mixing the metals in 
a crucible, however simple they appear at first sight, 
require certain precautions upon which we cannot too 
strongly insist. 

The alloys made in one operation are always very 
difficult of preparation, when the metals, such as zinc 
and lead, copper and lead, for instance, possess a sort 
of " antipathy" in their affinity. It is with much trouble 
that we obtain, in this way, thoroughly homogeneous 
castings, presenting the same body and grain of simi- 
lar alloys which have already passed through a previous 
fusion. 

In order to arrive at the best possible results, with- 
out employing the method by separate operations, it is 
proper, as a general rule, to endeavor to operate ac- 
cording to the following principles:— 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 43 

1. To charge the crucible, and melt first the least 
fusible of the component metals. 

2. When this metal is in fusion, to heat it up to such 
a point that it will be enabled, without too great a 
cooling, to bear the introduction of the other component 
metals. 

3. Once the first charge is in fusion, to introduce the 
other metals in the order of their difficulty to melt * 
Whatever are the proportions of the component metals, 
and no matter which is the basis of the alloy, it is abso- 
lutely necessary that the most refractory metal should 
be melted first. Its fluidity, indeed, gives the measure 
of the temperature necessary for finishing the alloy. 
By charging first a fusible metal, it may volatilize and 
become oxidized, and the crucible may also break by 
raising the temperature high enough to receive, with- 
out too much cooling, a less fusible metal. At the 
same time, there will be more waste, and the pro- 
portion of the alloy will be sensibly changed. 

4. To present at the flame of the furnace the metals 
which are to be subsequently added, in order to heat 
them as much as possible, and thus facilitate the change 
of temperature which takes place when the new metal 
is added to that or those already melted in the crucible. 
This practice is especially good when we have to in- 
troduce a volatile metal, such as zinc, which, being 
melted too rapidly, may cause the crucible to break. 

5. To stir after the introduction and melting of each 
component metal ; and to cover the crucible, at the 
same time that the fire is increased more or less, accord- 
ing to the less or greater fusibility of the metal. 

6. To cover the alloys rich in zinc with a layer of 
charcoal-dust. This is not necessary when there is not 

* This is a general rule, to be applied in most cases ; but there 
are exceptions. For instance, gold will easily dissolve in melted 
tin, and platinum in many metals. If platinum were first melted, 
and zinc for instance added, the temperature necessary to obtain the 
fusion of platinum would be sufficient to volatilize the zinc. — Trans. 



41 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

in the alloy any metal, such as copper or iron, having 
a high point of fusion ; or when the proportion of zinc 
added does not require a protracted heating, and the 
alloy may be poured out immediately. With alloys 
rich in tin, the charcoal-dust will cause the scorifica- 
tion* of part of this metal ; therefore it is preferable 
to cover the surface of the molten mass with refractory 
sand or pulverized sandstone. 

7. To stir thoroughly the molten alloy just before it 
is cast, and, if possible, during the pouring out. The 
stirring is to be done with a stick of white wood, 
burning without splitting ; and not with an iron rod, 
which has a tendency to produce dry alloys, and may 
modify the nature of the compounds by adding some 
iron to the alloy — a small proportion, it is true, but 
nevertheless appreciable. 

8. To carefully clean the crucible after each opera- 
tion, in order to maintain the accuracy of the mixture, 
and facilitate the fusion. 

Such are the main conditions for obtaining alloys 
in one operation. If alloys thus prepared give some 
trouble in obtaining good results, they are Yery econo- 
mical, and present the advantage of keeping, as strictly 
as is allowed by the fusion, the proportions of the 
mixture. 

Moreover, in practice, it is generally acknowledged 
that a small proportion of an old alloy added to a new 
one, improves it by giving it the homogeneousness 
which otherwise would be imparted only by a second 
fusion. 

* The author uses the word " scorification," but we do not think 
that the term is entirely appropriate. Nevertheless, it is certain 
that charcoal is not favorable to alloys of tin and copper, and that 
pure clay crucibles are to be preferred to those of plumbago for 
such alloys. Metallurgists know that at a certain period of the 
refining of copper, the metal is carburized and brittle. In order to 
prevent this carburization, it has been recommended to give a 
coat of pure clay to the interior of plumbago crucibles. — Trans. 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 45 

In ternary or quaternary alloys made of copper, 
zinc, tin, and lead, it will always be well, in order to 
obtain more homogeneousness in the final mixture, to 
alloy beforehand the more fusible metals, such as zinc, 
tin, and lead ; and to combine this first alloy with the 
copper, under the best conditions possible. In this way 
the last combination will possess better qualities than 
an alloy made in one operation. 

However, we repeat it, alloys made by the first 
direct method, although much more simple and eco- 
nomical, do not answer all the wants of the arts, and 
do not present the same guarantees as those which 
have been remelted. For instance, runners from bronze 
or brass castings of a first fusion, when melted again, 
and when the primitive proportions were good, present 
a better grain, and a metal without defects, which is 
more easily worked than another alloy made directly 
by one operation. 

The pieces cast with alloys made by the direct 
method — we always mean those in which copper is a 
component part — are possibly less liable to breakage 
and shrinkage than if made from old metal ; but, on 
the other hand, the surfaces are not so clean, and the 
grain is not so close and easily worked. Moreover, 
such alloys are not very fluid, and do not produce sharp 
casts. These defects are more to be guarded against 
in the case of statuary and ornamental bronzes than 
when pieces of machinery are to be produced. 

As a rule, the oftener a metal is melted, the more it 
loses its previous qualities. 

This is exemplified by cast iron, which, after having 
been melted several times, loses part of its softness and 
tenacity, and becomes hard and brittle. This happens 
also to all metals, in a greater or less degree. Copper, 
repeatedly melted, becomes more finely granular and 
less tenacious. The same applies to tin, zinc, and lead. 
However, the last two metals become purer by a second 



46 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

fusion, and are altogether improved ; but these qualities 
will disappear, if remelting occurs too often. 

The deterioration which takes place in the nature of 
metals melted singly is due to new combinations during 
the remelting, and is entirely caused by the manner in 
which the operation is conducted. 

Oxidation by the fire and the air, and the presence of 
iron, which it is nearly impossible to remove during the 
fusion, are the principal causes of the deterioration we 
mention. 

It will be understood that these causes act more 
powerfully when we operate with remelted alloys, which 
lose their primitive proportions by the waste which 
takes place. And if an allo} r made by the direct 
method gives satisfactory results, it will evidently lose 
its qualities by subsequent meltings. We may, it is 
true, maintain the alloy within the proportional limits of 
its composition, by re-establishing, as much by guess 
as by experience, the proportions modified by the pre- 
ceding fusions ; but, despite the precautions taken, it is 
with the greatest difficulty that we can bring it again 
to its primitive condition. 

The brass-founders, especially those of Paris, have 
succeeded in casting quite large pieces from crucibles 
only. The combinations are more certain, and there is 
less waste, than by any other methods of fusion, con- 
sidered more simple, rapid, or even economical. 

The furnaces for crucibles, on account of the smaller 
space they occupy, and their less cost, are better adapted 
to the majority of founders. We shall not here indi- 
cate the principles to be followed in melting in cruci- 
bles, because they are to be found in our book on 
foundries. 

The main point, as we have already said, is to melt 
first the more refractory metals — copper, for instance — 
then to add to the molten mass the other component 
metals in the order of their resistance to fusion. When 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 47 

it is time to take the crucible out of the fire, the surface 
of the metal is cleaned off, and the molten alloy stirred 
with an iron rod — wood is better, when practicable — 
the more thoroughly as the metals are more difficult to 
combine. At last the crucible is rapidly removed, and 
its contents poured into the moulds, avoiding any un- 
necessary contact with the air ; and all causes tending 
to cool the metal. 

When large pieces are to be cast, the fire is so con- 
ducted that each crucible will be ready to furnish at 
the same time its contingent of molten alloy. All the 
crucibles are rapidly removed from the furnace, and 
their contents poured into a common basin, from whence 
the metal is delivered to the mould. 

The least delay in the pouring out of the contents of 
one or several crucibles, the irregularities impossible to 
avoid in the fusion, a temperature more or less equal, 
the difficulty of stirring sufficiently well when the con- 
tents of all the crucibles are united, make this mode of 
operating somewhat difficult. To succeed with it, we 
require a well-disposed shop, allowing easy and rapid 
movement, and skilful workmen practised in that kind 
of work. 

A properly constructed and conducted reverberatory 
furnace, and even a cupola, when the use of the latter 
is well understood, will be found more appropriate and 
more easy of management for casting large pieces, and 
that without more expense, and with more rapidity in 
the fusion.* 

The reverberatory furnaces for the fusion of copper 
alloys slightly differ from those employed for the 
fusion of cast iron. However, we prefer the furnaces 
where the hollow part of the hearth is near the bridge 
wall. 

The fusion of the metal already deposited on the 

* Our readers will understand that we here refer especially, and 
industrially, to the fusion of copper and its alloys. 



48 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

bed of the reverberatory furnace is conducted with 
more care than would be necessary for cast iron. The 
fire should not be so sharp and so frequently increased, 
its intensity should be more regular, especially when 
the metal begins to soften and is near the point of 
fusion. 

When the metal is melted, and when the temperature 
for running off" is reached, the working door above the 
hearth is opened, and the more fusible metals which 
complete the alloy are rapidly added. The whole 
molten mass is then stirred with an iron ladle with 
the greatest care ; because upon a good stirring depends 
the intimate union of the component metals. 

The alloys of copper and tin, more than others, re- 
quire a thorough stirring. The tin has a tendency to 
strike (rise) to the surface of the castings, when the stir- 
ring has not been thoroughly effected under the influ- 
ence of a somewhat high temperature. Some operators 
prefer to melt the tin in the casting-ladle, and then 
throw upon it the copper from the reverberatory fur- 
nace, stirring the molten mass all the while. 

The alloys of copper and zinc are more easily mixed ; 
however, the damper of the chimney of the reverberatory 
furnace is to be kept down at least two-fifths while the 
zinc is being introduced; the fire should also not be too 
brisk. Indeed, if we always need to maintain a good 
heat when the alloy is made, it is also proper not to in- 
crease the temperature too much, otherwise the waste 
will increase beyond measure. Moreover, when all the 
metals are together, and before closing the charging 
door previous to an additional heating, it is a good pre- 
caution to throw on the surface of the molten metal 
a shovelful of charcoal-dust or of silicious sand. 

When the time for casting has come, the tap-hole at 
the bottom of the hearth is opened with an iron bar, 
and the metal is received into a casting-ladle, the top of 
which is covered with ignited charcoal, which keeps 
up the heat and preserves the surface of the metal from 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 49 

the contact of the air. The temperature of the alloys of 
copper with tin or with zinc becomes rapidly lowered, 
and, if perfectly sound castings are desired, no time 
should be lost to pour the metal into the moulds. All 
currents of air are also to be guarded against, and all 
openings tending to produce them should be closed 
during the time of casting. 

Keverberatory furnaces are also employed for fusing 
scoria?, workshop waste, and those large pieces which 
cannot be broken or divided for melting in crucibles. 
When the operation is to be made with old alloys, it 
is necessary first to determine their composition, and 
then to add the proportions of the required metals, 
such as zinc, tin, lead, &c, necessary to bring the alloy 
to the desired composition. The introduction of the 
new metals into the molten bath is effected according 
to the rules already given. 

Cupolas may be successfully employed for recasting 
copper and its alloys. Although many founders hesitate 
to use cupolas, we are enabled to affirm that they offer 
great advantages when large pieces, and even the 
ordinary bronze or brass castings for machinery, are to 
be melted. 

The essential conditions to obtain with cupolas a 
well-alloyed metal, producing sound castings at a pro- 
per temperature, may be thus summed up :■ — 

1. To employ a dense coke, whose broken fragments 
are of a volume somewhat smaller than those for the 
fusion of cast iron. 

2. To use a cupola of medium height, whose dimen- 
sions in the clear are those of a cylinder having a 
diameter equal to one-fifth of the height, and one or 
two tuyeres — one opposite the other — giving the blast 
under feeble pressure. The cupola must be carefully 
heated before the introduction of the copper. 

3. To make smaller charges than in the case of cast 
iron. From 100 to 125 kilogrammes are enough for a 

5 



50 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

cupola whose diameter is 0.50 metre, and height 2.50 
metres. 

4. To attend carefully to the tuyere, in order to be 
ready to tap off the metal as soon as the last drops of 
the last charge fall on the hearth. 

5. To pour the copper upon the tin already melted 
in the casting-ladle. 

6. To stir carefully and continuously while the copper 
is running into the ladle, and the mixture is being 
effected. 

7. To cover the surface of the molten alloy in the 
casting-ladle with ignited charcoaL 

In the alloys, where zinc is a component part, it is 
proper to melt the zinc in a separate vessel, to pour the 
molten copper into the casting-ladle, and, after having 
covered the latter with a brasque* to let the zinc into 
the copper through an opening made in the brasque. 
This same hole is used for introducing the iron rod or 
the wooden stick, with which to stir. An operation 
thus performed, by using all the necessary precautions 
for obtaining an intimate mixture, without oxidation or 
volatilization of the more fusible metals ; by managing 
the fusion of the copper so as to make the minimum of 
waste ; by adding to the copper in the cupola a few 
ingots of bronze or brass, old runners, etc., which pre- 
pare the copper to be alloyed, and give it a fluidity 
which, alone, it would not have — will permit the casting 
of even thin pieces, in a satisfactory way, more rapidly 
than by the use of crucibles or reverberatory furnaces, 
and, at all events, more simply and economically. 

The waste from alloys of copper and tin is less than 
that from alloys of copper and zinc, because the latter 
metal rapidly volatilizes as soon as it is heated to a 
point slightly above the temperature of its fusion. 

* Brasque is sometimes charcoal-dust alone, sometimes charcoal- 
dust mixed with ashes or clay. In the latter case, it is used as a 
lining for furnaces. — Trans. 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 51 

When we melt in a crucible the filings, turnings, and 
scraps of brass, the waste may go as far as from 25 to 
30 per cent., and it is difficult to obtain a metal pure 
enough for casting. It is therefore necessary to make 
ingots, which are melted again, and produce another 
waste of from 3 to 5 per cent. In a cupola, these 
scraps, kept inclosed in old copper pipes, or enveloped 
in rough boxes made of old sheet copper or brass, do 
not produce more waste than in a crucible, and the 
metal is hotter. 

For the alloys cast into ingots, it is preferable to 
employ wide and not very deep ingot-moulds, in order 
to avoid the separation called liquation. In bronze 
alloys especially, if the ingots are too thick, the tin has 
a tendency to strike to the surface. This defect is not 
very serious when the ingots are to be melted again ; 
on the other hand, it is highly prejudicial when the 
ingots are to be laminated, or drawn out under the 
hammer. 

The waste in alloys is entirely dependent on the 
duration of the fusion, and the time during which the 
metals, once melted, are subjected to the temperature 
of the furnaces. However, with equal care and super- 
vision during the fusion, the proportion of waste ought 
to be less with the crucibles than with the reverbera- 
tory furnace or the cupola. 

With crucibles the waste varies with the greater or 
less skilfulness of the founder, and, excepting accidents 
and some special cases, remains between 3 and 6 per 
cent. In cupolas the waste ranges from 4 to 10 per 
cent. ; and in reverberatory furnaces, from 6 to 15 and 
even 20 per cent. With the reverberatory furnaces, 
always very difficult of management when the tempera- 
ture is to be regulated during the fusion, and an ox- 
idizing flame is to be avoided, the most skilful work- 
man is not always sure of the amount of waste he will 
produce. Therefore, in the large copper-works, the 



52 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

management of the reverberatory furnaces is not in- 
trusted to any but the best workmen ; because it is 
too easy for a workman little trained, to pass in a 
few minutes from the limits of an ordinary waste to 
an unusual one. 

We have given, in another work, a practical process 
for determining the proportion of the component metals 
of an alloy. We think it should find a place here, 
and complete the explanations given in this chapter. 

When we know, for instance, the nature of the ele- 
ments of a binary alloy, a calculation may give the 
proportion of each of these elements by the following 
rule : — 

Take, two by two (in pairs), the three differences be- 
tween the specific gravity of the alloy and that of each 
of the two combined metals, then multiply each specific 
gravity by the difference of the two others, and write 
the two proportions as follows : — 

The greatest product is to the total weight of the 
compound as each of the two other products is to the 
weights of the two component substances. 

Example. — What is the weight of each of the two 
elements, forming an alloy of copper and tin, whose 
specific gravity is 8.761, and weight 130 kilogrammes ; 
knowing that the specific gravity of copper is 8.788, 
and that of tin 7.291? 

Take successively the three differences between the 
specific gravities, and multiply each of these differences 
by the specific gravity which was not part of the 
subtraction. 

8.788—7.291=1.497x8.761=13.115217 

8.761— 7.291=1.470x8.788=12.918360 
8.788—8.761=0.027x7.291= 0.196857 

Write the proportions in the manner we have 
indicated : — ■ 



PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 53 

13.115217 : 130 : : 12.918360 : o:=128.048 
13.115217 : 130 : : 0.196857 : x= 1.951 



129.999 



The alloy is therefore made of 128.048 parts of cop- 
per, and 1.951 part of tin ; the approximation is 0.001. 
By operating in a similar manner, we could find the 
proportions of a ternary quaternary, etc., alloy. 

As a complement of this method, which will be 
found useful by founders, we shall explain the prac- 
tical means for determining the specific gravity of a 
substance. 

If we take water as the unit for specific gravity, 
and if we weigh the substance first in the air, then in 
water, we find the specific gravity by this rule : — 

The difference of the weight in water is to the weight 
in the air as 1, or the specific gravity of water, is to x, 
the specific gravity we desire to know. 

But, as it may happen that the substance is lighter 
than water, we then attach to it another heavier body, 
so as to weigh it in water. We deduct the weight of 
the two substances in the water from their weight in 
the air, then the weight in water from the weight in the 
air of the additional body, and lastly this second differ- 
ence from the first, which gives a new difference which 
is to the weight in the air of the lighter substance as 1, 
or the specific gravity of water, is to x, the desired 
specific gravity. 

By these processes, founders may readily determine 
the component parts of an alloy, without havingrecourse 
to analysis, with which they are not always familiar. 



54 



PART II. 

I. 

ALLOYS OF THE METALS MOST USED IN THE AETS. 

We give the name of industrial metals to those which 
are in general use in the arts, that is to say, those 
which, being no longer confined to the limits of the 
experimental laboratory, may form the basis of a some- 
what extended manufacture. 

For this reason, iron, copper, zinc, tin, lead, anti- 
mony, bismuth, nickel, arsenic, and mercury are the 
industrial metals. 

It is needless to insist on the importance of the first 
five metals, which will be the subject of our first study ; 
they are intimately connected with every question of 
construction ; they depend on each other, if we may say 
so, and all of them are often employed united. 

" Concerning these metals, which, however, are much 
better known than the others, science shows us that 
many facts are to be observed, and many doubts resolved. 

" Many applications which, at the present day, are 
not thought of, will be found for these metals as soon 
as practice shall develop the properties already known, 
and discover new facts. 

"Such should be the aim of all attempts at improve- 
ment in metallurgic works. 

"At the same time that the ordinary routine of the 
works is attended to, a manager should not lose sight 
of any new fact or result, without trying to understand 
it, and ascertain if in it there is not the basis of future 
improvements. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, ZINC, TIN, AND LEAD. 55 

"The science of metals is essentially one of practice. 
Experiments, although they will not from the start lay 
open the unknown, will alone point out the proper 
direction for future studies. 

" It is especially when metals are alloyed together, 
that practice plays an important part. Most of the 
results are due, if we may say so, to chance. And if 
from the scale of data already collected, a skilful 
chemist may foresee a few results and go in advance of 
facts, it rarely happens that he is enabled to understand 
all the phenomena which take place, and to deduce from 
them positive and regular rules." 

These few lines, which we insert here as a preamble, 
were written fifteen years ago as the heading of a 
pamphlet on alloys, the success of which was due to 
the entire lack of similar works on this subject, and 
possibly to the importance of the experiments and of 
the stated results. 

The first part of this chapter comprises these experi- 
ments and their results, relative to the alloys of copper, 
tin, zinc, and lead. The second part will be devoted to 
the alloys of iron with the above-named metals. But 
there our subject will be neither so interesting nor so 
complete, because, up to the present day, we have not 
been enabled to bring to satisfactory results the series 
of studies undertaken at a previous time on this special 
subject, which has been but slightly elucidated by the 
authors who have written on alloys. 

1. Studies on the Alloys of Copper, Zinc, Tin, 
and Lead. 

Few practical men have investigated the question of 
the alloys made with the above metals, although they 
form, without doubt, the most important portion of the 
metallic combinations employed in the arts. Margrafr) 
Berthier, Levol, Bobierre, Hoffmann, and a few others, 
may be mentioned as the only experimenters who have 



56 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

given to the public a certain number of peculiar data 
on certain series of alloys applied to various purposes, 
such as copper sheathings for ships, bronze for coins, 
statuary bronze, etc. 

Other persons, whether learned or practical men, 
have more or less confined themselves to those recog- 
nized alloys, the proportions of which, up to the pre- 
sent day, are considered as articles of faith. 

Thus we know that bronzes in these proportions — 
copper 88, and tin 12, are very good for pieces having 
to resist friction ; copper 78, tin 22, are proper for bells ; 
that copper 75, zinc 25, make good brass, etc., and the 
aim has always been to remain within these primitive 
limits. 

It results, however, from the combinations which we 
have experimented upon, that by varying sensibly the 
above proportions, we may arrive at as good alloys for 
the same uses; some being more economical, and others 
more lasting, better colored, more tenacious, etc. 

The publication of these experiments has therefore 
its utility, and will allow a comparison between the 
results already known, and the new properties derived 
from new combinations. 

In our researches, we have divided the operation 
into : — 

1. Fixing the proportions of the constituent metals. 

2. Fusion. 

3. Examination of the product. 

The determination of the proportions would have 
been very complicated, had we tried to make all the 
combinations possible between metals taken two by two, 
three by three, etc., the ratio of each change in the 
proportions being the unit. 

We would have had thus to undertake an innumer- 
able series of experiments, without any probable gain, 
because, in the majority of cases, a difference of one 
unit in the proportion of one of the component metals 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, ZINC, TIN, AND LEAD. 57 

will not produce a sensible modification in the alloy. 
"We have, therefore, been obliged to operate between 
limits sufficiently distant from one another to afford a 
certainty in the results ; and whenever doubt existed, 
we have experimented on new proportions between 
these limits taken as landmarks. 

The proportions have been calculated so as to have 
a total weight of 0.250 kilogramme (about J pound), 
which is sufficient to give as good indications as could 
be expected from larger quantities of alloy. 

The metals, after each of them had been weighed, 
were melted in a crucible, and cast into vertical moulds, 
so as to produce a square rod or bar, 0.10 metre long 
(about 4 inches), and 0.01 metre (about T \ inch) for 
the sides, and a button having a diameter of 0.035 
metre (about 1 T 3 5 inch), and a height of 0.015 metre 
(about T 6 o inch). 

The observations which follow, result from the 
examination of the produced alloy, and bear equally 
on the nature and appearance of both the bar and the 
button. These observations are sufficient to characterize 
the essential properties of the compounds, and are 
followed by accurate researches on their tenacity, mal- 
leability, ductility, etc. A more exact determination 
could be made only by comparative numbers, but the 
time necessary was not at our command. 

The series of experiments which we are about to 
present is, without doubt, the most important in the 
practice, and may be thus subdivided: — 

1st. Alloys of tin, zinc. 



2d. 


u 


tin, lead. 


3d. 


It 


tin, zinc, lead. 


4th. 


It 


zinc, lead. 


5th. 


It 


copper, tin. 


6th. 


it 


copper, zinc. 


7th. 


it 


copper, lead. 


8th. 


tt 


copper, tin, zinc. 


9th. 


it 


copper, tin, zinc, lead. 



58 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

"We shall point out only the main characteristics of 
the alloys of these nine subdivisions, and shall follow 
our examination with general observations on the whole 
of the experiments. By thus summiog up the princi- 
pal results, the differences resulting from each of the 
possible combinations of the four metals will be brought 
in opposition, and compared. 

It is needless to say that the elementary metals in- 
troduced into the alloys were obtained as pure and of 
as good a quality as the trade could afford. In order 
to refine them, and, at the same time, to divide them 
into small rods easily cut, each of these metals was 
melted. After this fusion, their specific gravities were : — 

Copper . 8.675 

Zinc . 7.080 

Tin . 7.250 

Lead ...... 11.300 

These specific gravities will serve as terms of com- 
parison for those of the alloys, if we happen to find 
the opportunity of determining not only these specific 
gravities, but also the numerical values of the resist- 
ance, elasticity, etc., of these combinations which we 
have studied. 

1st. Alloys of Tin and Zinc* 

No. 1. Tin 30, zinc 70.— Texture of a dull white 
color.f — An average shrinkage. — Breaks easily. — The 

* We repeat that all the following data belong to special re- 
searches on alloys, and that in no case have we bound ourselves 
to consult what is known in the ordinary practice, and from works 
on the subject. As regards the results on a large scale of these 
alloys actually used in the arts, we can but refer to our work on 
" foundries," where that question has been treated with all the 
extension it requires. 

f The color of the texture, which is characteristic of every alloy, 
depends on the nature of the mould and the temperature of the 



ALLOYS OF TIN AND ZINC. 59 

fracture offers larger and brighter facets than zinc. — ■ 
The metal is denser at the bottom of the mould. — Dry 
to the file. — A fine file imparts a bluish polish. — 
Breaks under the chipping chisel. — Slightly sonorous. 
— Shows an appearance of crystallization at the sur- 
face, with a slight bluish-yellow color. 

No. 2. Tin 25, zinc 75. — Texture of a white color, 
sliding to blue. — Slight settling or shrinkage of the bar 
only, the same as No. 1. — Bright fracture with large 
bluish facets, like those of zinc. — The tin seems to be 
in larger proportion at the bottom of the button, the 
same as No. 1. — The surface is covered with a kind of 
skin rather wrinkled than crystalline, with the colors 
of the iris, light blue, violet, and golden yellow. 

No. 3. Tin 50, zinc 50. — Texture pallid white.— The 
surface of the button is very smooth, granular and 
lamellar at the same time, without any appearance of 
shrinkage ; the edges are somewhat round, and do not 
show plainly the iridescent colors. — The fracture is 
bright, and finely granflar upon a ground tin-white. — - 
Clogs the file a little. — The alloy is well mixed, tough 
and malleable, without being soft. 

No. 4. Tin 70, zinc 30. — The texture is white, and 
somewhat shining. — No settling. — Feebly sonorous. — ■ 
The surface is granular, dead white, with some spots 
light yellow. — Difficult to break. — Bears the hammer- 
ing well. — Easily worked with the chisel, which takes 
off long chips. — Clogs the file. — The fracture, like that 
of tin, is without brightness and crystallization. — 
When polished, is not so bright as tin. — -The alloy is 

alloy, when cast. We have endeavored to keep these conditions 
sensibly constant in all the experiments, and to give thus a certain 
utility to our remarks, which otherwise would not have a decided 
meaning. 

The same rule applies to our observations on the exterior surface, 
and the shrinkage of the button. 



60 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

more complete and better mixed than the preceding 
ones. 

No. 5. Tin 75, zinc 25. — Texture tin-white, but with- 
out brightness. — No settling. — Surface granular, and 
dusted like with bright particles. — The upper surface 
has a tint changeable from yellow to a reddish-blue. — 
Clogs the file more than No. 4. — Very malleable, 
although resisting the hammer and the chisel more 
than No. 4.- — Bends without the cracking sound of tin. 

No. 6. Tin 10, zinc 90. — The bar or rod shows, at the 
fracture, the characteristics of a zinc rod. — Clogs the 
file more than zinc, and the fracture is not of so dull a 
gray. — The bottom of the button is soft, and easily 
receives the impression of a punch. — As with No. 2, 
tin appears to have become precipitated, and the metal 
at the bottom is even softer than pure tin. 

No. 7. Tin 90, zinc 10. — The rod presents the jagged 
fracture* of tin, and the runner could be separated 
only by cutting it. — The alloy clogs the file less than 
pure tin. — The button had settled sensibly in the mid- 
dle, although the edges were sharp. — The alloy is very 
malleable, although not so soft under the hammer. 

No. 8. Tin 1, zinc 99. — The fracture is like that of 
zinc, but the facets are not so large. — The lustre is 
slightly brighter after filing. — The middle of the bar 
had settled. — The button had also settled in the middle, 
and the lower part was soft like No. 6, although not 
so thick, on account of the small proportion of tin in 
the alloy. — The soft portions are bluish like lead, and 
are easily streaked by the nail. 

No. 9. Tin 99, zinc 1. — The fracture is slightly 
granular, not so dull and jagged as that of tin. — 

* In the French, "Fracture arrachte" means the fracture of certain 
metals, difficult to break, on account of their softness or fibrous 
state when torn asunder, and their fracture appears to be composed 
of fibres of unequal length, parallel or crooked. " Jagged fracture" 
is the nearest translation we can arrive at. — Trans. 



ALLOYS OF TIN AND ZINC. 61 

"When polished, is not so bright. There is more shrink- 
age on the bar than on the button, and the surface of 
the latter presents dark iridescent colors. 

General Observations. — The alloys where the 
proportion of zinc is the greatest, present in their frac- 
ture a crystallization, whose large facets shine like 
graphite. A very small proportion of tin added to zinc 
causes this crystallization. In similar circumstances, 
the exterior of the castings is covered with a yellow- 
white moreen (moire). 

In thick castings, where zinc predominates, there is 
a tendency to a separation taking place at the bottom 
of the mould ; and, what is remarkable, this tendency 
grows greater as the proportion of tin becomes smaller, 
which is exemplified by the separation being more 
sensible in No. 8 than in No. 6. We may add, as a 
singular anomaly, that the tin, which has passed through 
the zinc and has become precipitated, loses its distinc- 
tive qualities, and acquires the softness and the bluish 
dull color of lead. 

The color of the alloy of zinc and tin, whether 
simply cast or filed, becomes brighter in a direct ratio 
with the proportion of tin contained in it. 

The alloys already rich in tin become granular 
when the proportion of zinc is increased. 

The alloy No. 3 (tin 50, zinc 50) has the fracture 
of iron, but its color is duller. 

The alloy No. 9 (tin 99, zinc 1) has a fracture pre- 
senting no longer the jagged appearance of tin, and is 
dull gray and finely granular. 

The specific gravity of the alloys of tin and zinc is 
in proportion to the mean specific gravity of the two 
metals ; therefore the alloys where tin predominates are 
more dense. 

The waste is greater where zinc is in excess ; the 
tin having been put into the crucible after the fusion 
6 



62 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of the zinc, we infer that most of the waste comes 
from the zinc. 

The addition of 1 per cent, of tin to zinc is sufficient 
to impart to the latter metal a greater resistance, 
without diminishing its hardness. 

One per cent, of zinc added to tin impairs the flexi- 
bility of the latter, and, what is remarkable, prevents 
its peculiar crackling noise. These two alloys, when 
the combination is intimate, present no other sensible 
changes. 

The alloy of tin 50 and zinc 50 is the best as regards 
stiffness and economy. More zinc would produce an 
alloy not so well mixed, more crystallized, and brittle ; 
more tin would give a metal clogging the file, and 
too soft. However, for thin and resisting castings, an 
alloy of tin 70 and zinc 80 is well adapted. The alloys 
kept between these figures and the proportion of half 
and half are very resisting and tenacious. Their mal- 
leability increases with the proportion of tin. 

The alloy of zinc 1 and tin 99, without impairing 
the malleability of the latter metal, increases its hard- 
ness and tenacity for castings. 

The alloys where the maximum of zinc is employed, 
are useful in foundries only for thick pieces ; they are 
then very economical. Up to the proportions of tin 
30 and zinc 70, they remain nearly as brittle as zinc 
itself. The proportion of tin 25 and zinc 75 produces 
an alloy not so flexible as tin, and less brittle than zinc, 
which could be adopted for foundry patterns. 

The alloys Nos. 6 and 8 appeared to us more brittle 
than zinc, in those experiments where tin, passing 
through the molten mass in the mould, had become 
precipitated to the bottom. We may infer from this, 
that a quantity of tin sensibly less than 1 per cent, is 
sufficient to change the nature of zinc. 

The proportions of tin 40 and zinc 60 possess but 
little malleability. 



alloys of tin and lead. 63 

2d. Alloys of Tin and Lead. 

No. 1. Tin 75, lead 25. — Grayish-white fracture, 
which may be produced by hammering, and the ap- 
pearance of which is not so jagged as that of pure tin. 
— Clogs the file more than tin, and less than lead. — 
Less flexible and more malleable than tin. — Mode- 
rately ductile. No settling at the button, and very 
little at the bar. — After being filed, the lustre is some- 
what duller than that of tin. — The bar does not produce 
a colored streak on paper. 

No. 2. Tin 25, lead 75. — The fracture is more jagged 
than No. 1 ; it is more like a metal torn asunder than 
a broken one. — The fracture looks like that of lead, 
but is of a brighter white color. — Malleable. — Very 
easily drawn under the hammer, like lead. Adheres 
to the file, but not so much as lead. — Forms a distinct 
colored streak on paper. — The settling takes place 
especially near the runner, and is scarcely noticeable 
at the button. — The surface* presents little iridescence. 
— By filing, the polish is dull. 

No. 3. Tin 50, lead 50. — Broken without difficulty 
by the hammer, when the bar has been notched one 
millimetre deep all around by a saw. — Although not 
so hard as tin under the hammer, it is equally mallea- 
ble, ductile, and resistant. — As hard under the file as 
tin, but not so bright after being filed. — The button 
and the runner present the same amount of settling 
and the same color as a similar casting of tin. — The 
rod produces a slightly colored streak on paper. 

No. 4. Tin 90, lead 10. — Fracture not very jagged, 
like that of No. 1. — After a notch with a saw, as with 
No. 3., the bar was slightly bent when the runner was 
broken off by the hammer. — The polish by a file re- 
mains sensibly the same as that of tin. — The runner 

* The surfaces are such as they come from the mould, without 
being hammered, cut, or filed. 



64 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

has scarcely any settling, the button none. — The alloy 
clogs the file a little more than tin, is softer, but its 
texture resembles tin in many points. — It does not give 
a colored streak on paper. 

No. 5. Tin 10, lead 90. — Fracture as jagged as that 
of No. 2. — As soft as No. 2, but much less than pure 
lead. — Produces a streak on paper nearly as colored as 
that of lead. — Clogs the file. — Stiffer than lead and riot 
so flexible. — Keceives the impression of the nail, the 
same as No. 2. 

The nail leaves a slight impression on No. 3, and 
none upon Nos. 1 and 4. 

General Observations. — The alloys of tin and lead 
are easily made; they generally impart more resist- 
ance to the lead, without sensibly impairing the quali- 
ties of the tin. It would not be impossible to ascer- 
tain the proportion of lead in the alloy, by the beha- 
vior of the latter under a chisel, a punch, and by the 
streak it leaves on paper. 

No. 4 (Tin 90, lead 10) does not give a colored 
streak on paper; No. 1 (tin 75, lead 25), a very slight 
one. Between these two limits, as for instance with an 
alloy of tin 85 and lead 15, no streaks are to be seen 
on the paper, and it is therefore a practical means to 
ascertain that lead remains in these proportions. 

The alloys of tin and lead shrink or settle less than 
either of these metals taken singly ; they are not so 
fluid when melted, and the castings have not the same 
sharpness. 

Lead, added to tin, increases its malleability and 
ductility, but diminishes its tenacity. Difficult to break 
even after several successive bendings, tin becomes 
more brittle when alloyed with lead; the fracture is 
then more marked than that of lead, whatever may be 
the proportions in the alloy, the latter metal being more 
easily separated than tin, but requiring, however, to be 
torn asunder. 



ALLOYS OF TIN AND LEAD. 65 

In the alloy No. 4 (tin 90, lead 10), tin preserves its 
crackling noise, possibly not to the same degree as 
when pure, but enough to lead into error persons not 
fully conversant with the metals. This property of the 
alloy No. 4, which, however, much resembles pure tin, 
explains the adulterations to be found sometimes in 
commercial tin. The tests by the streak on paper, and 
the crackling noise, both favor the adulteration. From 
the proportions of the alloy No. 4, upwards, it becomes 
very difficult, unless by long practice, to ascertain im- 
mediately the presence of lead with the tin. 

On the contrary, in the alloys of zinc with tin, 1 per 
cent, of zinc is sufficient to destroy the crackling noise 
of tin. This property alone may help to recognize the 
alloy, which may also be determined by other charac- 
teristics already indicated. 

The alloy No. 1 (tin 75, lead 25) produces no crack- 
ling noise on bending. Bent at a square angle, it 
begins to show a fracture, which increases when the 
bar is straightened again. This effect does not take 
place when pure tin is bent for the first time ; it is 
even not noticeable with the alloy No. 4, although 
this latter is more brittle and its fracture not so 
crooked and jagged as that of tin. 

This fracture will be the best test for distinguishing 
the alloy No. 4, from pure tin ; and when coupled with 
a lower crackling noise, a certain mark left on paper, a 
darker texture and a duller polish, there will be suffi- 
cient means to prevent error. But all these indications 
are so slight, that all of them must agree, and a prac- 
tised eye is necessary to discern them. 

If the proportions of the alloy No. 4 are changed, 
the less lead is added, the more difficult will it be to 
ascertain the presence of lead. This explains why in 
the trade so little tin free from Jead is to be found, 
even among that claimed as very pure. 

The texture qf the alloy, on those parts cast- in cqn- 
6* 



GQ PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

tact with tbe air, is another means of recognizing the 
presence of lead. In those alloys where lead is to be 
found in certain quantity, the texture is less crystal- 
lized, and covered with a pellicle more granular or 
wrinkled. There is less iridescence, and the lustre is 
darker and more metallic. Besides these practical data, 
and without having recourse to analytical processes, 
the consumer has other means for distinguishing the 
alloys of tin and lead. These means are derived as 
those we have already sketched, from the nature of the 
alloys themselves. For instance, we may determine 
them by their specific gravity, which is proportional to 
the mean specific gravity of the two alloyed metals. 

We may also recognize the alloys of which lead is 
an important part, when by contact with the air they 
become covered with a white dust of oxidized lead. 

An alloy of tin and lead with more than 70 per cent, 
of lead begins to be of inferior quality as a solder. 
The alloys for solder remain within the limits of tin 
30, lead 70, for heavy works; and tin 70, lead 30, for 
soft solders; so that, in these alloys, 30 per cent, is the 
smallest proportion for either of the two component 
metals. 

The alloys of tin and lead are advantageous for fusi- 
ble compositions. The proportion of tin 60 and lead 
40 gives a compound fusible at about 70° C. By in- 
creasing the proportion of tin, the fusibility of the alloy 
increases also, which agrees with results already es- 
tablished. 

3d. Alloys of Tin, Zinc, and Lead. 

No. 1. Tin 76, zinc 12, lead 12. — Fracture similar to 
that of steel, with fine and bright grains. — Tough. 
— Clogs the file slightly. — No settling either on the 
bar or the button. — Dull white texture. — The lustre 
acquired by filing rapidly disappears. — Does not leave 



ALLOYS OF TIN, ZINC, AND LEAD. 67 

a colored streak on paper. — The alloy is thoroughly 
mixed. 

No. 2. Tin 12, zinc 76, lead 12. — Like zinc, the frac- 
ture is lamellar and jagged at the same time. — Tough, 
but much less than the preceding. — After being filed, 
its color is more blue than No. 1, and is not so easily 
tarnished. — Slight settling. — The natural surfaces are 
covered with a very wrinkled pellicle, of a gold-yellow 
color sliding to violet. — The alloy is not so thoroughly 
mixed as the preceding. — A small portion of the sepa- 
rated tin and lead, 8 millimetres thick, ends the button. 

No. 3. Tin 12, zinc 12, lead 76. — Jagged fracture 
without lustre, resembling both those of lead and tin. 
— More easily broken than these two metals. — Less 
flexible than tin, but softer under the hammer. — Harder 
than lead alone. — Leaves a colored streak on paper. — ■ 
The alloy is more completely mixed than No. 2, and 
there is no separation to be seen on the button. — No 
settling. — A colored pellicle the same as the preced- 
ing. — Has the color of lead after being filed. 

No. 4. Tin 34, zinc 33, lead 33. — Fracture duller and 
not so jagged as that of zinc, which, however, it re- 
sembles. — When polished, its color is grayish-blue, 
without brilliancy, and not so marked as that of lead. 
— The alloy is well mixed, somewhat soft, but resisting 
and with little flexibility. — Very little settling. — The 
surfaces resemble those of cast- tin, are light yellow, 
without iridescence. — Leaves a slightly colored streak 
on paper. 

No. 5. Tin 10, zinc 45, lead 45. — Fracture resem- 
bling that of zinc, with triangular and bright facets, on 
a dull ground. — Kesists fracture like a tough body, 
although somewhat soft. — Possesses little malleability. 
— No sensible settling. — The surfaces are much wrin- 
kled, bluish-violet sliding to yellow at the corners. — 
Leaves a streak on paper nearly as colored as that of 
No. 3. — The file gives a dull gray polish. 



68 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

No. 6. Tin 45, zinc 45, lead 10. — Fracture resembling 
that of iron, dull gray with shining points. — Texture 
granular and slightly crystallized like pure melted tin. 
— No settling. — The surface is like that of tin. — Leaves 
scarcely any colored streak on paper. 

No. 7. Tin 45, zinc 10, lead 45. — Like tin, the frac- 
ture is dry and jagged. — The alloy is more easily 
broken than the latter metal. — No settling. — The file 
gives a dull gray polish. — Very malleable and resist- 
ing. — Its flexibility is a great deal less than that of tin 
and lead. — Its streak does not color the paper as much 
as No. 5. 

General Observations. — The presence of lead in 
these alloys imparts to them more body and resistance 
than is possessed by the alloys of tin and zinc alone. 
However, they clog the file as much as the latter. The 
fractures are, generally, more marked than those 
of the alloys of tin and zinc. The alloy No. 4, where 
the three metals are in equal proportions, and other 
alloys presenting slight variations, are malleable, al- 
though not very ductile, and may be employed with 
great economy in many cases. 

The alloy No. 2, as hard and brittle as zinc, although 
more resisting, may be successfully employed by 
founders. Like No. 3, it is cheap, and both will be 
found more serviceable in foundries than either of the 
three metals taken singly. 

These ternary alloys, which are more thoroughly 
mixed, and more complete than the alloys of zinc and 
tin or zinc and lead, present the advantage of being 
more tough without being more expensive. — Num- 
bers 1, 3, and 7 appear to stand friction very well. — 
Nos. 2, 4, and 5 will do for pieces requiring more re- 
sistance than pure zinc. — No. 6 will do for thin castings 
requiring a certain malleability. It will also be found 
serviceable for ornaments, and will bear engraving and 
chasing. For these uses, Nos. 2, 4, and 5 would be too 
brittle ; and Nos. 1, 2, and 7 too soft and yielding. 



ALLOYS OF ZINC AND LEAD. 69 

All these alloys, when polished, have little lustre, 
and become rapidly tarnished by exposure or friction. 
They are not to be used as white metals. But, besides 
the advantages they offer in foundries, several of them 
might be applied to the manufacture of types, and in 
galvanizing metals, etc. 

4th. Alloys of Zinc and Lead. 

No. 1. Zinc 75, lead 25. — Same fracture as zinc, a 
little closer. — The fracture at the lower part of the bar 
is more finely granular than No. 4; the facets are 
shining like those of a large grain iron. — The lead has 
precipitated to the bottom of the button, occupying 
half of it ; the separation is also seen on more than 
one-sixth of the length of the bar. — The portion of the 
bar where zinc predominates clogs the file more than 
pure zinc. — No settling at the surface of the button, 
which is pale yellow. — A slight settling is to be seen on 
the bar, near the runner. 

No. 2. Zinc 25, lead 75. — The whole bar presents 
the characteristics of lead ; the runner alone has the 
appearance and the fracture of zinc. A little below 
the runner liquation has taken place, and the lead 
has been precipitated to the bottom, leaving at its 
junction with the zinc an empty space, like a blown 
hole. — The lead has also separated in the button, the 
surface of which is very irregular. — The bar has set- 
tled like tin. 

No. S. Zinc 50, lead 50. — The fracture near the 
runner is like that of zinc melted several times. — The 
lead has become separated both in the bar and the 
button, and occupies one-third of the bar and two- 
thirds of the button. — No settling on the button. — On 
the bar, the settling is like that of No. 2. 

No. 4. Zinc 90, lead 10. — The fracture is like that 
of a finely granular zinc. — The entire bar presents this 
character, without any separation. — The bar, however, 



70 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

leaves a colored streak on paper, like lead. — Nearly all 
the lead of the alloy is found precipitated in the button. 
■ — The button has settled slightly, and when broken, 
presents large facets with a few jagged portions, where 
the zinc is. The presence in the button of nearly the 
whole of the lead employed for the alloy cannot be 
well accounted for by the lead having precipitated to 
the bottom of the crucible, notwithstanding the stirring, 
because the alloy remaining liquid in the mould for 
some time, lead would have been able to penetrate 
part of the bar. The latter, however, contained some 
lead intimately mixed in the whole mass. 

No. b.-Zinc 10, lead 90. — The fracture is like that 
of lead, that is to say, appearing more like being torn 
asunder than a true fracture, and its color is not so dull 
as that of lead alone. — The bar yields to a punch, the 
same as lead ; however, when filed, it produces a certain 
noise, presents more resistance to the tool, and the file 
dust is easily detached ; in a word, it is tougher than 
lead alone. — The button, as in the other examples, 
contains the lead at the bottom and the alloy of zinc 
at the surface. — The bar and the button present a 
settling similar to that of lead. 

General Observations. — The five preceding al-, 
loys, like all the intermediate compositions which we 
have tried, were all cast at the same temperature, 
gradually raised. The alloys were carefully stirred, 
before taking the crucible off' the fire, and while run- 
ning into the mould. The moulds were of green sand, 
and so disposed as to be cooled rapidly. Notwith- 
standing all these precautions, it has not been possible 
to prevent the separation of the lead, which took place 
as soon as the alloys were run into the moulds. All 
the samples present this separation, more or less, ac- 
cording to the proportion of lead in the alloy. We 
may then infer that the alloys of zinc and lead are not 
practicable ; and that, not alone on account of the differ- 



ALLOYS OF ZINC AND LEAD. 71 

ence between the specific gravities of the two metals. 
Indeed, if this separation of the lead may be due to 
the specific gravity of this metal, we may also suppose, 
and with as much appearance of truth, that it is occa- 
sioned by the zinc, which alloys nearly as badly with 
tin, the specific gravity of which is not very different; 
while, on the other hand, it alloys very well with copper, 
which has greater specific gravity. This is an anomaly 
very interesting to observers, and which might pre- 
ferably be attributed to the difference of the melting 
points. 

However, notwithstanding the separation or liqua- 
tion, it is certain that a very small proportion of the 
lead remains united with the zinc, sufficient to modify 
the nature of the former. Thus, from these alloys, it 
results that the bars of zinc, slightly impregnated with 
lead, acquire a great power of resistance under the ham- 
mer, become harder, more malleable, and adhere more 
to the file. They leave a colored streak on paper, which 
is a proof of the presence of lead, and that an alloy 
takes place with a very small proportion of the latter 
metal. This can be verified by the results of No. 4, 
which presents at the fracture the characteristics of 
zinc, and of which the properties have been modified. 

Those portions of the bars where the separation has 
taken place, and when the lead predominates in the 
alloy, present an empty blown place, showing how 
complete and sudden was the liquation. With No. 2 
the lead was scarcely welded to the zinc, although the 
alloy had been run very hot into the mould. 

In all these alloys, when the buttons are broken, the 
zinc is perfectly distinct from the lead ; the two metals 
appear as if placed one on top of the other, although 
united, and when the surfaces are smoothed or polished, 
the line of demarcation is perfectly visible. This 
peculiar arrangement, more curious than useful, might 
find an application in a case, where it would be de- 



72 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

sirable to obtain a casting composed of zinc one way, 
and of lead, the other. 

The fracture of zinc holding a minute quantity of 
lead is not so bright as that of pure zinc ; the crystalli- 
zation presents smaller facets extending in every direc- 
tion, instead of being vertical to the plane of fracture, 
as is the case with pure zinc. Such an alloy, made on a 
large scale, would not show the nature of the zinc sensi- 
bly modified. Only those alloys of the two metals hold- 
ing a small proportion of zinc or lead, about 1 per cent, 
for instance, will give good castings, if they are care- 
fully stirred, run into the moulds at a good temperature, 
and rapidly cooled. The alloys of half and half would 
be very difficult to produce, if not impossible in prac- 
tice. A piece of ornamentation, presenting a large 
surface, and cast horizontally with an alloy of zinc 70 
and lead 30, had all its lower portions overcharged 
with lead separated from the zinc, and the line of sepa- 
ration was full of blown holes. Where the lead pre- 
dominated, the casting was heavy, without sharpness, 
more like a paste, and presenting the marks of many 
bubbles of air which could not escape. 

To sum up, in the alloys of zinc and lead, where one 
of the metals is in small proportion, the other predomi- 
nating metal is improved. Thus, with No. 4, the zinc 
has lost part of its brittleness, and adheres more to the 
file ; with No. 5, the lead, naturally soft, has acquired a 
certain hardness and tenacity, at the same time that it 
has become less flexible. 

As regards the zinc, and the same as with the preced- 
ing ternary alloys of zinc, tin, and lead, a small propor- 
tion of the latter metal improves the alloy ; in a large 
proportion, there is no alloy, or the product is inferior. 

5th. Alloys of Copper and Tin. 

No. 1. Copper 99, tin 1. — Texture of a light violet 
color. — The polish is light red, without much lustre. — 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN. 73 

Granular fracture, spotted with light red or salmon 
red bubbles. — Soft under the hammer, but does not 
clog the file as much as pure copper. — Has more te- 
nacity than the latter metal. — The surface of the button 
is convex, reddish on the edges, and covered in the 
middle with a scoriated pellicle, like pure red copper. 

No. 2. Copper 95, tin 5. — Texture of a very light 
violet copper. — The polish is yellow, tending to a pale 
red. — Granular fracture, somewhat jagged, and of a 
yellowish-orange color. — No settling on the surface of 
the button, which is wrinkled like bronze (copper 88, 
tin 12), with some spots of a brown red color resem- 
bling that of pure copper. — It is dryer to the file, harder 
under the hammer, and more resisting than the pre- 
ceding alloy. 

No. 3. Copper 90, tin 10. — The texture is dull yellow 
sliding to a very light violet. — -The polish is more of a 
pale yellow and less reddish than No. 2. — Granular and 
jagged fracture, of a pale yellow, tending to a whitish- 
yellow. — The surface of the button presents a small 
and regular settling, and is covered with a wrinkled 
and tubercled skin, like that of bronze. — Tough, resist- 
ing, standing the hammer well, and somewhat harder 
than the preceding. 

No. 4. Copper 80, tin 20. — Yellowish-gray texture. 
— The polish is light yellow, tending to the pale gold- 
yellow of alloy No. 7, of copper with zinc. — The frac- 
ture offers some jagged points, but the remainder is 
lamellar, with scarcely any grains. — A slight settling on 
the middle of the surface of the button, which is gray- 
ish-white on the edges, and covered on the centre with 
a grayish-black and granular skin. — More difficult to 
file, yielding less to the punch, more brittle, and conse- 
quently more easy to break than the preceding. 

No. 5. Copper 75, tin 25. — Dull gray texture. — ■ 
Polish, pale yellow passing to white. — Perfectly smooth 
fracture, without any granular and jagged appearance, 
7 



74 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and with a yellowish-white lustre. — A slight settling 
on the surface of the button, which is nearly smooth, 
and of a dull grayish-black color. — May be easily filed, 
although much harder than the preceding. — A punch 
leaves no mark on the alloy, which breaks under the 
shock. — It flies under the chisel. 

No. 6. Copper 65, tin 35. — Grayish-white texture, 
with more glitter than the preceding alloys. — Gray- 
ish-white lustre, intermediate between iron-white and 
silver- white. — The fracture is not jagged, although not 
so smooth and clean as the preceding ; it is whiter and 
has more lustre. — Breaks easily to splinters; cannot 
be chiselled ; very hard to file, and receives no mark 
from a punch. 

No. 7. Copper 50, tin 50. — Grayish-white texture, 
not very brilliant, and tending more to white than to 
gray. — Lustre, grayish-white with a dull reflection. — 
The ratio between the lustre of the texture and that of 
the fracture is more direct than in the preceding alloys, 
where the ratio is inverse. Fracture, white like that 
of No. 6, but with less lustre. — As brittle and easily 
broken as No. 6, it is not so difficult to file, but cannot 
be chiselled. — The surface of the button is smooth, of a 
dirty yellowish-gray color, and covered with a whitish 
dust, like the alloys of copper and zinc. 

No. 8. Copper 40, tin 60.— Texture like that of No. 
7. — When polished, the lustre is white, with a dull 
reflection like the preceding, but is much more easily 
filed and polished. — Between this and No. 7, the differ- 
ence of action of the file is very considerable ; No. 7 
is scarcely attacked by the file, while this alloy may 
be filed nearly like lead, with this difference, that the 
filings are dryer, finer, and do not clog the file. — The 
surface of the button is smooth like that of No. 7, and 
also covered with a dust of oxide of tin. 

No. 9. Copper 30, tin 70. — Texture like Nos. 7 and 
8. — Is filed and polished like the preceding, to which 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN". 75 

it bears much resemblance. — Easily receives the mark 
of a punch or hammer, although very brittle. — The 
fracture presents large laminae, with a lustre like that of 
No. 8. — The fracture of Nos. 7 and 8 was not lamellar, 
although not so smooth as No. 6 ; it was characterized 
by a few hollow spots, as if stamped. 

* No. 10. Copper 20, tin 80.— Texture like Nos. 8 and 
9. — The same characteristics of these two numbers. — 
The surface of the button is smooth, with a few grayish- 
black crevices. — Receives the mark of the punch well. 

Nos. 11 and 12. Copper 10, tin 90 ; Copper 5, tin 95. 
— The fracture becomes granular and loses its lustre. 
— Their texture is of a more grayish-white than the 
four preceding alloys, and they are much less brittle. 
■ — They are easily filed, although they hang more to 
the file, and produce coarser filings. Their polish is 
whiter, with more brilliancy. 

No. 13. Copper 1, tin 99. — Grayish-white texture, 
without the brilliancy of that of tin. — The fracture is 
bright. — Not so easily broken as Nos. 11, and 12, al- 
though without much tenacity. — Is easily filed, and 
chiselled with difficulty, although more yielding than 
the preceding alloys. 

General Observations. — These thirteen alloys are 
sufficient to give an idea of the anomalies presented 
by tin alloyed with copper. In the alloys where copper 
predominates, up to the combination of 85 copper and 
about 15 tin, the metals obtained are tough, tenacious, 
with a certain malleability, receiving a fine polish, and 
very useful in the arts. From the proportion of 15 
per cent, of tin, the alloys become harder, dryer, more 
brittle and difficult to file, until the proportion is cop- 
per 75 and tin 25. — The alloy of copper 65 and tin 
35 is very brittle, with a fracture like that of white 
pig-iron, and is scarcely attacked by the file. This 
brittleness and hardness remain up to the proportions 
of half and half. However, the alloy of copper 50 



76 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and tin 50 is more easily filed, and the other alloys, 
where tin predominates, reacquire that property which 
they had lost between the alloys No. 4, and No. 7. 
The combinations 11, 12, and 13 recover a certain 
tenacity, become softer, not so brittle, and may be 
more serviceable, whether as anti-friction metals, or 
white metals. 

The worst alloys, therefore, are not those where tin 
largely predominates, as is generally believed, and as 
we have ourselves stated in our book on the foundry. 
The less useful series, on account of their excess of 
brittleness and hardness, are, according to our experi- 
ments, those limited between the proportions of copper 
85, tin 15, and copper 20, tin 80. We must except, 
however, the sonorous alloys, which reach their maxi- 
mum of sonorousness with proportions of about 75 
of copper and 25 of tin, corresponding to the alloys 
for gongs and cymbals. The bell metal varies be- 
tween copper 79, tin 21, and copper 77, tin 23. These 
alloys, as we have seen, are filed with great difficulty, 
and the results of our experiments agree entirely 
with those of ordinary practice. We must also 
notice, among the alloys which we have pointed to 
as of little service in the requirements of industry, 
the alloy No. 6, or one not very different, which is 
employed as speculum metal for telescopes. The per- 
fectly white color of this metal adapts it to that par- 
ticular use. 

In the alloys ranging from No. 1 to No. 4, a change 
in the proportions of tin gives various metals with 
properties sensibly modified. 

The composition No. 1 is that of a bronze for medals 
and coin ; it is the only one which is sufficiently mal- 
leable when cold to make it worth while to notice this 
property. The malleability, at the ordinary tempera- 
ture, disappears with the compound No. 2, but will 
remain at a cherry-red heat up to the proportion of 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN. 77 

copper 85 and tin 15. The combinations remaining 
between No. 3 (copper 90, tin 10) and No. 4 (copper 80, 
tin 20), comprise the bronzes for machinery. For a 
red bronze, we adopt the proportions of No. 3 ; for an 
ordinary bronze, having a fine orange-yellow color, 
tough r tenacious, and bearing friction well, without 
being too hard, we prefer the proportions of copper 88 
and tin 12. But copper 85 and tin 15 will give the 
maximum of hardness and resistance, and the alloy 
may be filed. 

The alloys ranging from No. 2 to No. 4, where the 
proportion of tin is comparatively small, are difficult 
to produce by a direct operation. The mixture is often 
incomplete, and, whatever is the care given to the 
stirring, the tin has always a tendency to strike to the 
surface of the castings, and to become thus separated 
from the copper. We have indicated in our work on 
the "foundry," the best means for preventing that de- 
fect, and producing sound alloys by a direct operation. 
The manufacture of bronzes for machinery is some- 
times conducted on a large scale, and we have given 
directions for the use of the cupola. Without repeat- 
ing here what is already known, we shall however state 
as an important fact, that, when bronze is melted in a 
cupola, where a few fusions of cast iron have been pre- 
viously made, its quality is sensibly improved. This 
result, which is due to the alloy of a small proportion 
of iron with the bronze, will be noticed when speaking 
of the alloys of iron with other metals. Therefore, 
for the sake of economy and to improve the quality, it 
is preferable to employ a cupola which has already been 
used, when we desire to melt large quantities of bronze. 
Pure copper, when melted in a new cupola, wastes a 
great deal and penetrates the lining of the hearth, when 
tl\e temperature is raised too much; while this defect 
will not take place in an old furnace, the lining of which 

has become hard and vitrified by previous fusions. 

7 * 



78 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The unfavorable results presented by new cupolas 
are not confined to bronze alone; every founder knows 
that cast iron becomes hard and brittle at the first 
melting in a new cupola. 

The alloys of copper and tin, where the proportion 
of the latter metal predominates, are very apt to become 
oxidized. Generally, the oxidation of tin begins to 
be noticeable when the proportions reach two parts of 
copper to one of tin. 

That tin will have a tendency to separate from 
the copper, and strike to the surface of the casting, is 
not the only annoyance to be feared ; we have also to 
provide against the penetration of the metal into the 
material of the moulds, and its combination with the 
sand. When this happens, there is not only danger for 
the success of the casting, but the waste increases, and 
the quality of the alloy is sensibly impaired. The 
facility with which tin separates from the copper and 
infiltrates the sand of the moulds, cannot be opposed 
except by an intimate mixture of the two metals, a 
thorough stirring, running in at a good temperature, 
and the employment of moulding sands sufficiently 
wet. Sands, whether too wet or too dry, have an equal 
tendency to become saturated with the tin which sepa- 
rates from the alloy. It is obvious that this separation 
of tin is to be feared only in large pieces, when the 
cooling is slow, and the alloy remains liquid for a long 
time. 

A sample of sand thus impregnated with metal, after 
the casting of a large journal box composed of copper 
88 and tin 12, had a specific gravity of 4.456, while 
those of the casting and of the pure sand were re- 
spectively 7.538 and 1.225. We have thought it use- 
ful to notice this fact, although foreign to the results 
of our experiments. - 



alloys of copper and zinc. 79 

6th. Alloys of Copper and Zinc. 

No. 1. Copper 99, zinc 1. — Yiolet texture. — Polish 
pale red. — Fracture jagged and brighter than that of 
pure copper, although lighter colored. — More difficult 
to break than the latter. — Somewhat harder under the 
file. — The surface of the button is scorified and puffed 
up, like that of pure copper. 

No. 2. Copper 95, zinc 5. — Yiolet texture, similar to 
No. 1. — The polish is a very pale red, tending to yellow. 
— Fracture tough, jagged, and of a red color, passing to 
yellow. — -Malleable, and difficult to break, even after 
having been bent several times. — A little harder to 
the file than the preceding. — The surface of the button 
is bloated, wavy, but not so scorified as No. 1. 

No. 3. Copper 90, zinc 10. — The texture is neither so 
violet nor so dark as the two preceding alloys. — The 
polish is yellowish-red, tending more to yellow. — Frac- 
ture finely granular, and yellowish-red. — Not very 
difficult to break after having been notched with a 
file. — Bears the hammer well. — Harder to the file than 
No. 2. — The surface of the button is puffed up on the 
edges, and slightly settled in the middle ; it is covered 
with a brown skin with reddish-violet spots. — This 
surface differs more from that of pure copper than the 
buttons of No. 1 and No. 2. 

No. 4. Copper 80, zinc 20. — Texture violet, sliding to 
dull gray. — Polish dark yellow without red reflection. 
— The fracture is more coarsely granular than the pre- 
ceding one, and of a yellow color resembling gold- 
yellow- . — More difficult to break than the preceding. — 
Yery malleable. — Harder to file than No. 3. — The sur- 
face of the button has settled in the middle, and has 
its edges rounded; its skin is somewhat wrinkled, dark 
yellow, and presents violet spots as No. 3. 

No. 5. Copper 75, zinc 25. — The texture is light 
violet, with yellow marbled veins. — Polish dark gold- 



80 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

yellow. — The fracture is finely granular, and the gold- 
yellow color will rarely appear, unless by filing. — The 
surface of the button is smooth, slightly granular, 
without settling, not so dark yellow as the preceding, 
and with very few violet spots. 

No. 6. Copper 65, zinc 35.— A light yellowish-green 
texture. — Polish yellow, with a greenish reflection, and 
brighter than No. 5. — Fracture of a yellowish-orange 
color, and the facets converge towards the centre. — 
More easily broken than the preceding, and does not 
hang to the file so much. — The surface of the button 
is bloated and dirty yellow, with a few spots of a 
brighter yellow. 

No. 7. Copper 50, zinc 50. — Yellow texture, sliding 
to a dull gray. — Polish a pale yellowish-red, as the 
bronzes of copper and tin. — Fracture dark gold-yellow, 
with large facets presenting a jagged appearance. — 
Harder to file than the preceding, and slides under 
the tool. — The surface of the button is scorified, and 
grayish-yellow, with a few brighter spots. 

No. 8. Copper 40, zinc 60. — Dirty and dull yellow 
texture. — Polish yellow, tending to white. — Yery hard 
to file. — Yery brittle. — The fracture is smooth, without 
any grains or facets, like that of a very white pig-iron. 
— This fracture is very bright, and more so than the 
polish of the filed metal ; its brilliant white appearance 
imitates that of silver. — The surface of the button is 
slightly settled and scorified, and is spotted with bright 
yellow spangles. — The fracture of this button, effected 
while the metal was quite hot, is as smooth as that of 
the bar, and with a brilliant lustre, resembling more 
that of gold than that of silver. 

No. 9. Copper 30, zinc 70. — Texture, a dirty gray, 
without any lustre. — Fracture smooth, but not so even 
as that of No. 8 ; the lustre is not so sensible as with 
No. 8, although considerable. — Yery difficult to file. 
— Yery brittle. — The surface of the button is settled 



ALLOTS OF COPPER AND ZTNC. 81 

in the middle and covered with a dull grayish-black 
skin. — This experiment has been made twice; the first 
sample presented a duller and more granular fracture, 
of a white color passing to blue and violet. 

No. 10. Copper 20, zinc 80. — Texture, a very dark 
grayish-black. — Polish dull grayish-white. — Granular 
fracture, the tint being grayish-white, with a few bright 
spots. — Yery brittle. — Very hard to file. — May be re- 
duced to powder by hammering, the same as the two 
preceding numbers. — However, a punch will leave its 
mark on it better than on these two numbers, which 
do not stand the pressure at all, and fall to pieces im- 
mediately. — The surface of the button is swollen, and 
covered with a bloated and gray skin, without lustre, 
like the texture, and with a few whitish spots of oxi- 
dized zinc. 

No. 11. Copper 10, zinc 90. — Texture dull gray, 
sliding less to black than the preceding.— More easily 
filed. — A great deal less brittle. — The polish has not 
much lustre, and is white tending to gray. — The frac- 
ture on a lead-white ground is half granular and half 
lamellar, with facets having a certain brightness. — The 
button does not show any sensible settling, and is 
covered with a very wrinkled, blackish skin. 

No. 12. Copper 5, zinc 95. — Texture a duller gray 
than the preceding number. — Harder to file than zinc, 
but softer than Nos. 8, 9, and 10. — Polish dull, with 
gray reflection. — Fracture a grayish-blue, with bright 
facets, which are similar to those of zinc. — The surface 
of the button is smooth, presenting a general shrinkage 
or settling, and has a dull light-gray color. 

No. 13. Copper 1, zinc 99. — The texture is not so 
bright as that of zinc, and the gray color is more sad- 
dened. — It possesses less lustre, and a white color 
sliding to a dark one, more than zinc. — Fracture imi- 
tating that of zinc, but the ground is darker and 
the grains finer. — The surface of the button presents 



82 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the same color as the preceding, but there is more 
shrinkage. — This alloy is harder, more resisting, and 
more difficult to file than zinc. 

General Observations.- — The series of the alloys 
of copper and zinc, like that of the alloys of copper 
and tin, presents the same general analogies in the 
nature of the compounds, according as one or the 
other metal predominates in the compound. 

The malleability, ductility, smoothness, and firmness 
of the grain seem to increase with the proportion of 
copper, to disappear when the two metals are nearly 
in equal proportions, and to reappear, to a certain 
degree, when zinc predominates. 

Up to No. 7. where the proportions of the two 
metals are equal, the alloys of copper and zinc are in 
general use in the arts. With a small amount of zinc, 
as in all the alloys comprised between Nos. 1, 2, 3, 
and 4, the products are tough, tenacious, very malleable 
and ductile, but the objection to them is that they are 
somewhat expensive. This, evidently, is the only rea- 
son why they are but little employed ; and manufac- 
turers will even prefer the alloys of copper and tin, 
made in the same proportions, although more costly, 
because they are harder, more resisting, more sonorous, 
and bearing friction better, which qualities are to be 
found to a less degree in the corresponding alloys of 
copper and zinc. 

The next compounds, comprised between Nos. 4 and 
6, are those most used in the arts. 

The alloys of copper and zinc, known under the name 
of brass, and used for pieces of machinery, are generally 
composed of copper 75 and zinc 25, corresponding to 
No. 6. Questions of economy will decide whether the 
quantity of zinc is to be above or below this propor- 
tion. 

No. 7, where the combination was difficult because of 
the considerable waste of zinc, had the appearance of 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 83 

a tin bronze, judging by the texture, and the polish 
after filing. A not over-scrupulous founder, having 
to deal with a consumer not very well conversant in 
alloys, may pass No. 7 as a bronze ; but if by its ex- 
ternal appearance this alloy looks like a bronze, it is 
easy to ascertain that it is wanting in hardness, co- 
hesion, and even in color, because its polish rapidly 
becomes tarnished. A little lead added to this alloy 
gives it more body, and may render it very useful and 
economical for those castings requiring no chasing, 
and having no strains to bear. 

The compounds Nos. 8, 9, 10 comprise the series 
of alloys of copper and zinc that are the least ser- 
viceable, and are the most brittle, and the dryest, and 
hardest under the file or the hammer. No. 8, espe- 
cially, is very brittle, and will fall to pieces by the 
slightest shock. 

If No. 11 begins to acquire a certain firmness, it never- 
theless remains very brittle, and of a dull appearance. 
We do not believe it more serviceable than the three 
preceding numbers. 

Nos. 12 and 13 possess properties similar to those 
of zinc ; they are harder and tougher than the latter 
metal, and this explains why they are sometimes used, 
especially those economical combinations approaching 
that of No. 13. 

The direct combination of the alloys of copper and 
zinc is the more difficult as the proportion of zinc is 
more considerable. From No. 5 upwards, unless great 
precautions are taken, a considerable proportion of zinc 
volatilizes. If, however, care is taken not to keep the 
copper melted at too high a temperature, to add the zinc 
in several portions instead of all at once, to heat the 
zinc previously nearly to its point of fusion, to keep 
the crucible covered, to have a moderate fire until the 
moment has come for casting, and then to stir and 



84 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

operate rapidly, we avoid much waste of zinc, and the 
alloy may be produced in the desired proportions. 

At all events, the alloys of copper and zinc, once 
the proportion of zinc is above 50 per cent., do not 
seem to us to be worth more extended studies than 
those already indicated. 

By adding another metal, lead, for instance, we 
thought that we could arrive at better results; but 
new experiments with lead in small proportion, gave 
us samples of alloys sensibly the same as those of cop- 
per and zinc. 

In the metal works, where brass sheets and wires 
are manufactured, the alloys of copper and zinc in 
various proportions have, of course, been experimented 
upon. The results did not correspond to the require- 
ments, when the proportion of copper was less than in 
No. 6. Altogether, these experiments agree with our 
own. 

We shall notice several of them as a comparison. 



Brittle alloy, with a gray and lamellar fracture like 
that of zinc. 

Dry, and more brittle than glass : — Conchoidal frac- 
ture with the brilliancy of silver. 

Same brittleness and lustre, with a slight yellow tint. 

Brittle, and reddish-gray, but purplish at the frac- 
ture. 
50 50 But little tenacity, breaking with a jagged fracture 
of a fine gold-yellow. — Very hard to file ; the tool 
removing this fine color. 
55 45 More tenacious and resisting than the preceding 
alloy; the striae of the fracture become flat and 
lamellar, some being yellow and others reddish. 
60 40 Resisting. It was necessary to notch it with a chisel, 
before it could be broken. The lamina? at the frac- 
ture are flat and grayish-yellow. 

These alloys confirm what we have stated in 
principle, that the more useful combinations remain 
between Nos. 4 and 6. We must remark, however, 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


30 


70 


35 


65 


40 


60 


45 


55 



Copper. 


Zinc. 


80 


20 


84 


16 


86 


14 


88 


12 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND LEAD. 85 

that between Nos. 3 and 4 are to be found the alloys 
known in the trade under the names of similar, pinsbeck 
or pinchbeck, Prince Roberts metal, &c. The more im- 
portant of these compounds are : — 

Shining fracture of a fine yellow color. 
Of a finer yellow than the preceding. 
More yellow, and more brilliant. 
A gold-color, and finer grained. 

With a smaller proportion of zinc, the alloys are 
improved ; but then arsenic is added to them, in order 
to make the white coppers; tin, for the manufacture 
of chrysacal; tin and lead, for bronzes for statuary and 
gilding, &c. &c. 

We shall examine all of these compounds further on. 

7th. Alloys of Copper and Lead. 

No. 1. Copper 99, lead 1. — Texture, reddish-violet, 
like pure copper. — Polish, more pallid than pure cop- 
per. — The fracture is not so jagged as that of pure 
copper, and therefore more easily effected ; its appear- 
ance is dull, with whitish or pink mottled laminae, more 
pallid and with a more mixed coloration than is the 
case with pure copper. — Under the file, acts like cop- 
per, although more yielding to the hammer. — The sur- 
face of the button is dull black, bloated, and settled 
like copper. 

No. 2. Copper 90, lead 10. — Texture, light violet, 
sliding to yellow. — The polish is not as bright as the 
preceding, and its color is a light pink. — The fracture 
on a pink ground, mixed with gray on the edges, pre- 
sents laminse converging towards the centre. — The 
button is smooth, with a slight settling, and is covered 
with a grayish-black pellicle having a certain lustre. — 
The metal of the button is granular, gray mixed with 
pink, and more brittle than that of the bar. — The bar 
8 



86 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

clogs the file, and is softer under the hammer than the 
preceding alloy. 

No. 3. Copper 75, lead 25. — Texture, gray, slightly 
pinkish. — Polish, without much lustre, and a light pink 
sliding to gray. — Fracture, light pink mottled with 
gray, and with closer laminae than the preceding 
alloy. — Does not break so easily. — The button is similar 
to that of No. 2, but its texture is more pallid. — The 
bar clogs the file, and its resistance to the hammer 
equals that of No. 2. 

No. 4. Copper 50, lead 50. — Its texture and polish 
are the same as the preceding. — The colors of the 
fracture are more mixed, and it is more granular than 
lamellar. — In this sample, as with the preceding, the 
lead, penetrating the sides of the mould, has become 
deposited on the surface of the bar, which is covered 
with a pink-gray film. — The polished surface shows 
different tints, tending from light red to gray. — Yields 
to the hammer, and clogs the file, the same as No. 3. 

No. 5. Copper 25, lead 75. — Presents the general 
characteristics of lead, although not so yielding to the 
hammer. — Is more brittle, and breaks with a some- 
what granular fracture, without a jagged appearance. 

No. 6. Copper 10, lead 90. — Similar to the preceding, 
that is to say, more brittle, less malleable than lead, 
and with a fracture not so jagged. 

No. 7. Copper 1, lead 99. — Similar to Nos. 5 and 6. 
— The presence of the small proportion of copper is 
scarcely perceptible, except by a few yellow tints on 
the surface of the bar. 

General Observations. — The alloys of copper and 
lead are difficult to produce in extreme limits. They 
are, however, more easy when copper predominates. 
When the proportion of lead is in excess, this metal 
cools off the copper in the crucible, or becomes partly 
oxidized, if the temperature is increased in order to 
obtain a more thorough mixture. On the other hand, 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, AND ZTNO. 87 

the copper has a tendency to strike to the surface, when 
the alloy is run into the moulds very hot. It results 
then, that the alloys of copper and lead are difficult to 
obtain by the direct process, in one fusion. 

The alloys Nos. 3 and 4, although better mixed and 
combined than the other, are not a complete combina- 
tion. If they are melted again, their mixture becomes 
more intimate, their color more uniform, their fracture 
cleaner and not so easily effected, and their resistance 
greater. 

A small proportion of lead with pure copper, as is 
the case with the alloys of copper and tin, copper and 
zinc, renders these metals more ductile, and better pre- 
pared to be rolled. 

The proportion of copper 50, lead 50, may give an 
economical alloy, melting at a low temperature, com- 
pared with that required to melt copper, and which 
may be laminated, and found serviceable for those uses 
where hardness is not the main desideratum. 

In order to obtain the alloys of copper and lead by 
the direct process, it is proper to heat the copper at 
the highest temperature which will not produce oxida- 
tion, then to add the lead already melted and raise the 
temperature during the stirring in the furnace, and, at 
last, to stir again just before running into the mould. 

Generally, for these alloys made on a large scale, 
into which it is desirable to introduce lead, it will be 
proper to prepare in advance the alloy of equal parts 
of lead and copper, which appears to be the best suited 
for mixtures, then to employ this alloy to be remelted, 
whether with copper or with lead, according to the 
desired proportions. 

8th. Alloys of Copper, Tin, and Zinc. 

No. 1. Copper 80, tin 15, zinc. 5. — Texture, a light 
violet. — Polish, a pale yellowish-pink, with the lustre 



88 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of pure copper. — Fracture like that of red bronzes, half 
granular, half lamellar, and quite difficult to produce. 
■ — Resisting. — Malleable. — The surface of the button 
is like that of the bronzes of copper and tin. 

No. 2. Copper 90, tin 8, zinc 2. — Texture, a very light 
greenish-yellow. — Polish, a light yellow with lustre. — 
Fracture, dry, a white ground, very slightly granular, 
and without lustre. — Yery easily broken ; hard to file ; 
and very unyielding under the punch. — Its appearance 
is more like that of alloys of copper and zinc, with a 
large proportion of zinc, than that of alloys of copper 
and tin. — The surface of the button is covered with a 
wrinkled and light brown pellicle. — This alloy appears 
to be more sonorous than any of the others. 

No. 3. Copper 75, tin 5, zinc 20. — Texture, a light 
greenish-yellow, sliding to green more than No. 2. — 
Polish, a light greenish-yellow, more easily tarnished 
than the preceding. — Fracture without lustre, striated 
towards the centre, and colored of a very light yellow 
tint, tending to white near the edges. — More resisting 
than the preceding, not so hard under the file and the 
punch, but quite dry and easily broken. — The surface 
of the button is smooth, brownish-yellow, and slightly 
concave in the middle. 

No. 4. Copper 92, tin 2, zinc 6. — Texture, a light 
violet, although the tint is darker than No. 1. — Polish, 
a pale red reminding us of that of pure copper. — Frac- 
ture, granular and orange-yellow. — Tough, and difficult 
to break. — Tenacious. — Malleable. — Yielding to the 
punch. — Clogs the file a little. — The surface of the 
button is smooth, raised at the edges, having a brown 
tint tending to black, and presenting in the middle a 
scoriated appearance like that of pure copper buttons. 

No. 5. Copper 80, tin 5, zinc 15. — Texture, a dirty 
yellow, tending to green less than No. 3, and more than 
No. 2. — Striated fracture, finer than that of Nos. 2 and 
3, yellow in the centre and white at the edges. — More 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, ANIj ZINC. 89 

resisting than Nos. 2 and 3, more easily filed and more 
yielding to the punch. — It bends before breaking. — 
The button is smooth, and covered with a brownish- 
yellow pellicle. 

No. 6. Copper 34, tin 33, zinc 33. — Texture, a dirty 
gray. — Polish, a dead white, without much lustre. — 
Smooth fracture, with a few laminse possessing a cer- 
tain brightness. — Very easily broken, and may be pul- 
verized under the hammer. — Dry to the file, the filings 
being very fine, without clogging the tool. — Will not 
receive the mark of a punch without breaking. — The 
button is covered with a very wrinkled skin, of a dirty 
gray, with a few specks of oxide of zinc. 

No. 7. Copper 20, tin 60, zinc 20. — Texture, a gray 
color, not so dark as that of No. 6. — Polish, whiter and 
with more lustre than No. 6. — Fracture, more granular 
and more jagged at the same time, with a dull white 
color, excepting a few specks Slightly brilliant. — 
Softer, and adheres more to the file. — Yields more to 
the punch. — The button is more even than the preced- 
ing, and is covered with a skin of a dirty gray, tending 
to white, on account of the presence of oxide of zinc. 

No. 8. Copper 20, tin 20, zinc 60.— Texture, like No. 
6. — Polish, a dead white as dull as that of No. 6. — 
The samebrittleness and resistance to the punch. — The 
fracture shows brighter spots, of a bluish-gray white, 
more perceptible than with No. 6.— The button has 
the same appearance.— -Somewhat dryer under the file, 
the filings being as fine and brittle. 

Nos. 9, 10 and 11. Copper 20, tin 40, zinc 40.— Cop- 
per 10, tin 45, zinc 45. — Copper 2, tin 49, zinc 49. — 
These numbers give samples which possess a great 
analogy with those of Nos. 6, 7, 8, and 12, as regards the 
texture and exterior qualities. — They are brittle white 
metals, without probable uses in the arts. — No. 11, 
however, bears some resemblanpe to number 13 of the 
alloys of copper and tin, and copper and zinc, in this 



90 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

particular, that, the proportion of copper being sensibly 
lessened, the peculiar qualities of the other metals pre- 
dominate, and occasion a more serviceable combination 
than those where the proportion of copper is more con- 
siderable, as in the Nos. 9 and 10, for instance. 

No. 12. Copper 50, tin 25, zinc 25. — Texture a dirty 
gray like Nos. 6 and 8. — Polish, a pallid white with 
very little lustre, which immediately disappears. — 
Square and smooth fracture, very bright, without any 
grains, facets, or striae. — Yery brittle, and easily broken 
to a fine and dry powder under the hammer. — Does 
not bear the action of a punch without breaking. — 
This alloy is more brittle than glass ; the preceding 
six numbers are also very brittle, but not so much so 
as this latter. — They break under the hammer. No. 
6 and No. 8, especially, when crushed, do not fly, but 
form a kind of cake full of rents. — On the contrary, 
No. 12 becomes reduced to a dry powder ; without any 
appearance of cohesion. 

General Observations. — The same as with the 
alloys of the two preceding series, the combinations of 
copper, tin, and zinc give products the more tough, 
malleable, colored, easily filed and turned, as the pro- 
portion of copper is greater. 

The alloys become white, dry, hard, and brittle, 
when the proportion of copper is below two-thirds of 
the whole mixture. The compounds, where copper 
enters as one-half, are extremely hard and brittle. A 
remarkable fact is, that the alloy of half and half cop- 
per and tin is dry, brittle, and difficult to file ; whereas 
the alloy of half and half copper and zinc keeps a 
certain coloration, may be filed, and, although brittle, 
possesses a certain amount of resistance. On the other 
hand, the alloy of copper 50, tin 25, and zinc 25, where 
copper also enters as one-half of the compound, is 
sensibly worse than the preceding two. This alloy is 
exceedingly brittle, is crushed under the smallest 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, AND ZINC. 91 

pressure, and seems to have retained none of the 
characteristic properties belonging to the component 
metals. • 

The alloy of equal parts of copper and lead, of all 
the various alloys which we have examined, is that 
which, with copper as one-half of the compound, ap- 
pears to us the more serviceable ; and that notwith- 
standing the difficulty shown by lead to become 
alloyed with copper or with zinc. 

If we pass the alloys of copper and lead, not em- 
ployed in the arts up to this day, and which to our 
mind might be serviceable for rolling, the alloys of 
copper and zinc are those to be preferred, because they 
allow of a smaller proportion of copper in the com- 
pound, without greatly impairing its qualities. 

The alloys of copper and zinc admit of a proportion of 
from 35 to 40 per cent, of zinc, without entirely losing 
their tenacity, color, and the property of being easily 
filed; whereas the alloys of copper and tin, with an 
equal proportion of tin, are white, very brittle, and 
cannot rank among the metals which are to be filed 
and chiselled. 

If equal parts of tin and zinc are added to copper, 
so as to form one-third of the alloy, this will be more 
resisting and stronger, and will be easily chiselled, 
although the chips are brittle and fly readily. This 
composition is the extreme limit of ternary bronzes 
useful in the arts. These more favorable results, in 
the same proportional limits as those given by the 
alloys of copper and zinc, and copper and tin, seem to 
be in contradistinction to observed facts, when the 
alloys, instead of being composed of two- thirds of 
copper, contain one-half only. Here is another proof 
of the curious transformations of metals when in the 
state of alloys. 

Therefore, the most serviceable series of the ternary 
alloys of copper, tin, and zinc are those where the 



No. 13 


84 


11 


5 


" 14 


83 


12 


5 


" 15 


81 


15 


4 


" 16 


78 


18 


4 


" 17 


73 


23 


4 


" 18 


70 


27 


3 



92 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

proportion of copper is not less than two-thirds of the 
compound. They comprise the most advantageous 
alloys for the casting of statuary bronzes. 

It is well known that statuary bronzes require 
special qualities. Above all, they must possess suf- 
ficient fluidity to completely fill the moulds, and at the 
same time they must be adapted to the work of the 
file and the chisel. The combinations which appear to 
us as fulfilling these requisites, and which at the same 
time present various tints as required by the arts, may 
be classified thus :-— 

Copper. Zinc. Tin. 

Polish, yellow-red. 
Polish, yellow-red. 
Polish, orange-yellow. 
Polish, orange yellow. 
The same, but lighter. 
Polish, light yellow. 
84 19 65 32 3 Polish, light yellow. 

No. 13 is the limit of the reddish-yellow bronze,* and 
No. 19 of the light yellow one. 

Nos. 16, 17, 18, and 19 are evidently harder, and 
more difficult to be worked than the preceding three 
alloys ; but they are less expensive, because they con- 
tain more zinc, and their specific gravities are sensibly 
lower. 

When we consider the beauty and durability of the 
work, the three alloys Nos. 18, 14, and 15 are evidently 
to be preferred. They also take better the color of old 
bronze (patine). 

Several of these alloys, besides being adapted to 
statuary, also present excellent qualities for pieces of 
machinery and for antifriction metals. Nos. 1, 2, 4, 

* These alloys are rather brasses, if a bronze be an alloy of copper 
and tin, alone, or with other metals, but where the proportion of 
tin predominates over that of the other metals — copper excepted. 

1 Vans. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, ZINC, AND LEAD. 93 

13, and 14 are the best in this respect. A combina- 
tion which, by its amount of copper, is similar to No. 
12 of the alloys of copper and tin, and copper and 
zinc, appears to give very good results. Known under 
the name of " Feuton's alloy," its composition, which 
we shall again examine further on, is copper 5.50, tin 
1.450, and zinc 80. By its hardness, color, and tenacity, 
it ranks with the alloy No. 12 of copper and zinc* 

Another ternary alloy, which resists ordinary friction 
well, does not become heated, and saves a great deal 
of lubricating material, is composed of copper 57, tin 
28, zinc 15. It is of a slightly yellowish white, very 
hard, not malleable, and may be filed sufficiently well. 
Like the preceding, it is much cheaper than the bronzes 
of copper and tin only ; and that is its greatest ad- 
vantage. 

In general, the series of the alloys which we have 
considered, nearly all give white antifriction metals, 
and are very economical. But it remains to be proven 
whether they will resist traction, torsion, compression, 
etc., as well as the bronzes with a preponderating 
amount of copper. This we doubt, and await thorough 
experiments to decide. But it is certain that, as 
regards beauty and good keeping in machinery, the 
true bronzes are much to be preferred. 

9th. Alloys of Copper, Tin, Zinc, and Lead. 

No. 1. Copper 78, tin 2, zinc 18, lead 2. — Texture, a 
gray tending to yellow. — Polish, a light yellow, tending 
slightly to a red. — Fracture, jagged and without lustre. 
— Breaks with difficulty. — Hard to file. — Resisting 
under the hammer. — Possesses malleability and tena- 

* We think that the true name is Fenton, instead of Feuton. 
Under that name are to be found in the trade several antifriction 
metals, without any copper in them, and none the better for that, 
as regards friction and durability ; but they are more easily pre- 
pared, melted, and cast into or upon pieces of machinery. — Trans. 



94 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

city.— Ductile. — The surface of the button is scoriated, 
and of a dirty gray color. 

No. 2. Copper 75, tin 2.50, zinc 20, lead 2.50. — Tex- 
ture, a gray with a few yellow and violet tints, and 
covered with a white oxide. — Polish, a gold-yellow, 
tending to green. — Jagged fracture of a gold-yellow, 
somewhat pallid. — More easily broken than the pre- 
ceding. — More easily filed and polished. — A very fine 
lustre, when polished. — Presents a certain tenacity, 
malleability, and ductility. — The surface of the button 
is wrinkled, and of a brownish-yellow color. 

No. 3. Copper 70, tin 10, zinc 10, lead 10. — Texture 
a dirty gray. — Polish, a pale yellow, without much 
lustre. — Fracture, gray, somewhat granular, but dry 
and easily tarnished.— Brittle, and harder than No. 1. 
Less resisting under the hammer than Nos. 1 and 2. — 
Very slight malleability. — Appears exceedingly well 
adapted for resisting friction, and for journal boxes. 
The surface of the button is covered with a very 
wrinkled skin, of a light brown color. 

No. 4. Copper 25, tin, 25, zinc 25, lead 25. — Texture, 
a somewhat dull greenish-blue. — Polish, a silver-white 
without much lustre. — Dry fracture, with a certain 
brilliancy, and with a ground slightly granular. — 
Breaks very easily. — It is filed without difficulty, but 
clogs the tool a little. — Bears well the mark of the 
punch. — The surface of the button is a dull grayish- 
white, and covered with a large quantity of oxide. 

No. 5. Copper 22, tin 26, zinc 26, lead 26.— Its tex- 
ture, polish, and fracture present the same character- 
istics as the preceding alloy. — Breaks more easily, 
although more yielding under the punch, and clogging 
the file more. — The surface of the button is like that 
of No. 4. — The specific gravity is greater than No. 4. 

No. 6. Copper 74, tin 1, zinc 10, lead 15. — Texture, 
a gold reddish-yellow. — Polish, a yellow sliding to 
orange-red, without much lustre. — The grains of the 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, ZINC, AND LEAD. 95 

fracture are fine and regular, of a gold-yellow color. — - 
Eesists fracture. — Yields well to the punch. — Malleable 
and very tenacious. — Easily filed, without being too 
hard, or clogging the file too much — Presents all the 
characteristics of a good bronze. — The surface of the 
button is a dull brown-red, like that of all the alloys 
where the proportion of copper largely predomi- 
nates. 

No. 7. Copper 74, tin 10, zinc 1, lead 15. — Texture, 
gray tending to pale yellow. — Polish, a pale reddish- 
yellow, without much lustre. — Fracture, finely granular 
and of a light pink-gray, like that of a bronze made 
of copper 88 and tin 12. — More resisting than the pre- 
ceding under the hammer ; harder and dryer to the 
file. — Better as to resistance to friction, but not so fine 
a color. — Less malleable than No. 6. — The surface of 
the button is granular, and scoriated like the buttons 
of copper and tin bronzes. 

General Observations. — There is little difference 
between No. 1 and No. 2 ; the latter, however, has a 
finer color, and is better adapted to gilding and 
chasing. No. 1 is harder, more resisting, tougher, 
and better for friction surfaces than No. 2. 

No. 3, without possessing the qualities of resistance, 
malleability, and mildness of Nos. 1 and 2, may give a 
good and economical bronze for certain pieces of ma- 
chinery ; but it will not suit for statuary work. 

Nos. 4 and 5 offer this singular property, of being 
very brittle and soft at the same time ; they are to be 
ranked among the white alloys, without sonorousness, 
and nearly useless for the arts. 

Nos. 6 and 7, on the other hand, may be applied 
very advantageously. No. 6 is redder than No. 7, 
and also more malleable and not so dry under the file. 
It seemed to us not so resisting under the punch, 
which may be accounted for by the volatilization of 
part of the zinc. 



96 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

No. 7 is worth, in appearance, the ordinary bronze 
for machines (copper 88, tin 12); and, on account of 
the lead, it is more tenacious, less brittle, and more 
economical. Experiments, made on a large scale, ap- 
pear to confirm all these advantages. 

It will be easily understood that we could not, with- 
out inconvenience, multiply the examples of these 
quaternary alloys. There are so many combinations 
possible between the four metals with which we have 
operated, that we have been obliged to confine our- 
selves to stating a few results only. Several interme- 
diate trials, ranging within the limits of the alloys which 
we have indicated, went to confirm the fact, already 
pointed out in the alloys of tin, zinc, and lead, that the 
lead sensibly improves the nature of the alloys into 
which it enters in a small proportion. Thus, when 
the alloys of copper and zinc, or copper and tin, 
become dry and brittle, they may be modified, and 
acquire body by the presence of lead. The same 
alloys, holding a large percentage of copper, and indi- 
cated as being malleable, ductile, tenacious, etc., will, 
with the aid of lead, maintain these qualities through 
the rollers and the draw-plate. It is thus that a por- 
tion of lead, as small as 0.50 per cent., gives the best 
alloys for drawing out under the hammer, for sheets 
and fine wires ; these alloys being composed of copper 
67, zinc 32, lead 0.50, and tin 0.50. 

In the quaternary compounds lead combines better 
than in its binary compounds with copper, or even 
than in its ternary combinations with copper and tin, 
or zinc. This is a remarkable fact to state. Besides, 
the presence of lead does not appear to essentially 
modify the external nature of the alloys of copper, 
tin, and zinc; and if it does not always impart impor- 
tant qualities for the use, the appearance is at least im- 
proved. At all events, the addition of lead is very 
economical. 






ALLOYS OF IKON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 97 

These last observations are especially applicable to 
those combinations demanded by industrial construc- 
tions. It is certain that an addition of lead to the 
statuary bronzes which we have mentioned, will im- 
prove the nature of the products. 

The Komans composed the bronze for their statues 
of copper 99, tin 6, and lead 6.* 

The brothers Keller, who were so celebrated as 
bronze-founders, made their alloys with copper 91.40, 
zinc 5.53, tin 1.70, and lead 1.47. 

The composition for the Vendome column was cop- 
per 89.16, tin 10.24, zinc 0.498, and lead 0.102. 

At last Mr. Darcet, who has made numerous trials, 
recommends the following two alloys as being the best 
adapted to gilding, chasing, and turning : — 

Copper 82, zinc 18, tin 3, lead 1.50. 
Copper 82, zinc 18, tin 1, lead 3. 

All of these results prove that the quaternary alloys 
of copper, tin, zinc, and lead give the best bronzes for 
the founders of artistical castings. And this will be 
confirmed by any examination of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7, 
besides many alloys which we do not mention. We 
shall add, however, that in these compounds a pro- 
portion of lead of over 3 per cent, takes somewhat 
from the fluidity of the alloy, prevents it from reach- 
ing the sharp angles of the moulds, and appears to 
prevent a good bronzing (patine) or gilding. 

2. Alloys of Iron with Copper, Zinc, Tin, and 
Lead. 

As we have already stated, the alloys of iron have 
not, up to the present time, neither by us nor by other 
persons, been studied with sufficient accuracy to pre- 
sent interesting facts for the arts, and, above all, to bring 

* The ancients rarely employed zinc in their alloys. 

9 



98 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

out new results, susceptible of wide and practical ap- 
plication. 

As a rule, iron may be alloyed with most metals; 
but its alloys, always difficult to effect, and in the 
majority of cases only with a small proportion of 
iron, have up to the present time resulted in vary few 
applications to the arts. 

It is evident that iron, introduced in small propor- 
tions into certain metals or certain alloys, will impart 
to them new and important qualities. However, the 
experiments thus far made have been hindered by 
difficulties in the preparation, which have removed all 
the interest felt for them, and sometimes rendered them 
entirely useless. 

Besides the alloys of iron with the above-named 
metals, of which we shall indicate the principal known 
data, this metal has recently been experimented upon, 
in order to combine it with certain modern metals, 
such as tungsten, for instance, for the manufacture of 
fire-arms. But all of these attempts, which we con- 
sider more or less fruitless, and of which we shall 
speak further on, are not appropriate in this part of 
the work. 

Alloys of Iron and Copper. — The alloys of iron and 
copper are difficult to produce, at least by the direct 
process. The copper remains in a pulverulent state 
within the iron, has a tendency to become precipitated 
to the bottom of the fluid mass, or in the moulds, and 
the combination is generally incomplete. 

With certain precautions, and by operating gradu- 
ally with small quantities of the metals, in order to make 
preparatory alloys, which serve afterwards to make 
the definitive alloy on a larger scale, it is possible to 
arrive at a union of iron with copper, that is rather a 
mechanical mixture than an alloy. The copper 
always shows its presence in the cast iron, and is 



ALLOYS OF IRON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 99 

easily seen in the grayish fracture, with grains with- 
out lustre, of cast iron mixed with copper. 

No matter how small the quantity of copper mixed 
with cast iron, the latter is rendered dry, hard, and 
brittle. It is sufficient that a few particles of copper 
should become scattered in a bath of molten iron to 
render cold short the iron puddled from that cast iron. 

This is the result of observations made by metal- 
lurgists and founders who have accidentally seen a 
small proportion of copper mixed with cast iron. 

An iron holding any copper cannot be welded ; it 
breaks under the hammer, and runs oft' at a tempera- 
ture much below that necessary to burn an iron free 
from copper. 

An alloy of copper 20 parts, and cast iron 1 part, 
gives a tough metal, hard, resisting, as ductile as cop- 
per, and presenting a fracture where the presence of 
cast iron can scarcely be ascertained. 

An alloy of copper 10 and cast iron 1, becomes 
harder and dryer than the preceding. The metal is 
scoriated, full of holes, and seems to be wanting in 
cohesion. It may be forged when cold, and remains 
quite ductile, although we doubt whether it would 
bear the drawing process, which, however, we have not 
tried. 

An alloy of copper 1 and cast iron 20, shows the 
presence of the copper in the whole mass. The cast 
iron, however, has become harder and more resisting. 

This hardness and resistance, on account of the 
little homogeneousness of the alloy, do not appear as 
if they would be capable of utilization in the arts. 
Several authors have claimed that pig-iron, intended 
for castings, and holding 1 per cent, of copper, will 
become more fluid and tenacious, and will produce 
sharper castings. This result might be possible if the 
alloy were thoroughly made, with the copper uniformly 
divided throughout the mass. But when in the manu- 



100 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

facture we throw aside the precautions possible in a 
laboratory experiment, one of these two things will 
happen : the copper is oxidized, and most of it be- 
comes mixed with the scoriae on top of the bath ; or 
it becomes precipitated, and will be found on the sur- 
face of the castings in the shape of drops, spots, or 
scoriated deposits. 

Alloys of Iron and Zinc. — The alloy of these two 
metals has been, up to the present time, so difficult to 
produce in a practical way, that it is of no advantage 
in the arts. 

Although the specific gravities of the two metals are 
not very different, the great tendency of zinc to vola- 
tilize as soon as the temperature is raised a little above 
that of its point of fusion, prevents its union with iron, 
which requires for its fusion a high temperature. 

It is true that in nature we find certain ores where 
calamine (carbonate of zinc) is united with iron; where 
tin and copper pyrites contain iron ; and where there 
are also certain ores of iron combined with those of 
lead or zinc, &c; but none of these primitive combi- 
nations appear to be capable of producing alloys, at 
least by the known processes. 

When zinc is dipped into molten iron, it decrepitates, 
becomes divided, and is projected out of the bath in 
the shape of cadmiae, without leaving a trace of its 
presence in the castings made after this attempt to 
alloy. 

By means of peculiar precautions, we have been 
enabled to introduce zinc into molten cast iron, with- 
out, however, producing a regular alloy that could 
find a place in the arts. 

Our process was to introduce a well-heated iron 
tube, down to a certain depth, into a bath of molten 
cast iron covered with a thick layer of charcoal-dust, 
and then to pour the melted zinc through that tube. 



ALLOYS OF IRON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 101 

A part of the zinc was lost, but enough remained to 
form an alloy. 

This alloy was hard, dry, and of a dull white color; 
it was also brittle when the proportions were approxi- 
matively zinc 50, cast iron 50. By increasing the 
quantity of zinc, the alloy became whiter, more like 
the texture of silver, and slightly more malleable. 
But, no matter what were the proportions of zinc or 
cast iron, the compound did not appear of any use in 
the arts. 

The union of iron and zinc is possible by analogous 
processes to those employed in the manufacture of 
tinned iron. A well-scoured sheet of iron, plunged 
into a bath of molten zinc, becomes uniformly covered 
with a layer of the latter metal, and the adherence is 
sufficiently great * However, we do not here arrive 
at results so good as can be had by the union of tin, 
or tin alloyed with zinc, for making tinned iron. 

At the present time, it is by the processes of gal- 
vanization that we arrive at the best union of iron 
with zinc. 

We shall indicate here, only as a memorandum, a 
few attempts made in the experimental laboratory at 
alloying zinc and iron. 

These alloys have been experimented upon by re- 
ducing together the oxides of iron and of zinc, by 
cementing in charcoal-dust a mixture of oxide of iron 
and calamine; or by heating together in a well-closed 
crucible a mixture of cast-iron filings with granulated 
zinc. 

All of these purely scientific processes gave no prac- 
tical results; and, in the absence of new and more satis- 
factory trials, we are obliged to admit that cast iron is 
not at all improved by the addition of zinc, even in 

* This adherence is even greater when the sheet-iron has been 
covered with lead, before being galvanized with zinc. 

9* 



102 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

minute proportion ; whereas, on the other hand, a zinc 
holding a small proportion of iron is more brittle, less 
ductile, and, in a word, inferior to zinc free from iron. 

Certain iron ores, especially in Belgium and the 
North of France, contain a small proportion of zinc, 
which in a few cases may be collected from the blast- 
furnace. This zinc has no well-marked effect on 
the nature of the cast iron ; although it is admitted, 
when the proportion of zinc is considerable, that the 
cast iron is dryer, more brittle, and more difficult to 
refine than that obtained from ores without zinc. 

Alloys of Iron and Tin. — But for the great difficulty 
of operation resulting from the high point of fusion of 
iron, this metal might be alloyed in all proportions 
with tin. The specific gravities of the two metals are 
sufficiently alike to enable a good alloy to be pro- 
duced. 

These alloys, however, are brittle, and are the more 
difficult to melt as they contain more iron. With a 
high temperature, the alloy is easy, but there is a 
greater or less waste of tin. 

A small proportion of iron in tin, gives to this metal 
a dull appearance, a greater hardness, and less mal- 
leability. On the other hand, a very small quantity 
of tin in iron renders it both cold and hot short, espe- 
cially the latter. An iron holding a certain amount 
of tin cannot be forged, and flies to pieces under the 
hammer. 

Cast iron which contains tin may present at its 
fracture as fine a grain as that of steel. It becomes 
black, and may acquire, like most of the hard metals, 
a fine polish not so easily tarnished as that of ordinary 
cast iron. Various attempts have been made in order 
to prevent the oxidation of cast iron by the addition 
of a small proportion of tin. 

Our own studies have shown that, by doing so, the 
cost of cast iron will be increased by a greater diffi- 



ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 103 

culty to work it, due to its greater hardness, without 
imparting to it the necessary qualities for resisting 
oxidation successfully. 

A proportion of 2 per cent, of iron in tin is sufficient 
to render the latter metal magnetic; hard, dry, and 
without lustre. 

The same proportion of tin in cast iron, renders the 
metal dry and brittle, and the iron puddled from that 
pig-iron is hard and less malleable. 

An alloy of iron 30, and tin 70, presents a dark gray 
fracture, a certain ductility, but nothing useful in the 
arts. 

An alloy of iron 50, and tin 50, is white, brittle, and 
possesses a granular fracture. 

An alloy of iron 70, and tin 30, is crystalline, with 
an iron-gray texture, and may be pulverized under 
the hammer. 

An alloy of iron 90, and tin 10, is of a light gray 
shade. The grain, which is dry and without lustre, is 
filed with great difficulty. This alloy is very dry, 
and very brittle and hard. Its polish, obtained upon 
a stone, is of a grayish-white and fine lustre. 

The practical uses for the combinations of iron and 
tin are the tinning of metals, which processes consist 
rather in a covering than in an alloy. 

Tinned sheet-iron, which is often considered as an 
alloy of tin and iron, is nothing but iron covered with 
several layers of tin. The first layers may, possibly, 
form an alloy. 

It is not our object to give the processes for tinning 
sheet-iron. We shall only mention that the main point 
is to produce a perfect adherence between the tin and 
the iron, and not a thorough combination, which would 
render the latter metal brittle. It is just on account 
of the penetration of tin, which we try to avoid, that 
there is no true alloy formed during the manufacture 
of tinned iron. We may, therefore, admit that tinned 



104: PRACTLCAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

iron is made of a sheet of iron, a superficial rather than 
a complete alloy of tin and iron, and several layers of 
tin. 

The sheet-iron for this manufacture must be of the 
first quality; and this quality should not be altered by 
the operations of pickling, scouring, and tinning. 

With certain qualities of tin, some manufacturers 
add a small proportion of copper, in order to give 
more fluidity to the tin, which will then leave on the 
surface of the iron thin and regular layers. 

The tinning of cast-iron vessels is even less of an 
alloy than the tinning of sheet-iron. Unless we use a 
very porous gray metal, there is no penetration by tin, 
and the tinning process in this case is but a covering 
with tin, the adherence of which to the cast iron is 
more or less complete. 

For tinning copper, for instance, some employ an 
alloy of iron 10, and tin 60, made by fusing block-tin 
with iron scraps, and keeping the molten mass at a 
red heat for a certain length of time. 

This alloy, which is very brittle when hot, pos- 
sesses a certain malleability when cold. It is cut and 
filed with difficulty. Its fracture is gray, and finely 
granular. 

Thenard has proposed, for the same purpose, an 
alloy holding less iron than the preceding, and com- 
posed of iron 10, and tin 80 parts. This alloy is 
grayish-white, fusible, denser and not so hard as the 
alloy of iron 10 and tin 60. 

Alloys of Iron and Lead. — Equally so with zinc, we 
cannot produce, in a practical way, alloys of iron and 
tin which will be serviceable in the arts. 

Lead, which is often difficult to alloy with other 
metals, unless employed in small proportions and with 
many precautions, has no affinity for iron. 

A piece of lead thrown into a bath of molten iron, 
becomes oxidized, or is separated and found at the 



ALLOYS OF IRON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 105 

bottom of the bath after the cast iron has been run 
out. As soon as the lead is introduced into the molten 
cast iron, a certain agitation appears at the surface and 
even through the whole bath, and the cast iron seems 
more fluid. When thin or large pieces are to be cast, 
the founders who are aware of this phenomenon often 
throw a certain quantity of lead into the molten cast 
iron, in order to prevent it from congealing too soon 
against the sides of the casting-ladle. 

The want of affinity of iron for lead, and con- 
versely, is made use of for separating lead from other 
metals having a greater affinity for iron. On the other 
hand, lead may be employed for separating iron from 
other metals, such as silver, for instance. Thus, if lead 
is added in sufficient quantity to a fused alloy of cast 
iron and silver, it will combine with the silver, and 
the iron will swim at the surface of the bath. 

All the authors who have occupied themselves with 
the question of alloys, agree upon the impossibility of 
alloying lead and iron. 

In experiments made by ourselves at Angers, 1847- 
1848, we obtained a kind of saturation of iron by lead 
in certain mixtures thoroughly stirred, and rapidly 
cast, where the proportion of lead was not over 2 to 3 
per cent. In all these experiments, whether because 
most of the lead was oxidized, and therefore could not 
be found in the trial bar, or because it was deposited 
in the shape of drops at the bottom of the moulds, it 
was ascertained by analysis that only traces of lead 
could be found. Which shows that lead had traversed 
the metal, without producing a true alloy. 

The cast iron thus treated was harder, and its grains 
were flattened and without lustre. Its specific gravity 
was 7.2, which corresponds to the average of ordinary 
cast iron. 



106 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



II. 

ALLOYS OF THE METALS OF SECONDARY 
IMPORTANCE IN THE ARTS. 

We shall successively examine the metals of the 
second series in the order of their alloys with the 
metals of the first series, and then between themselves. 

Our observations shall be short. All these metals, 
up to the present time, have seldom been experimented 
upon, and that without method or perseverance. With 
the majority of these alloys, we find that the most 
conscientious workers entirely disagree. The facts 
which we indicate in this chapter sometimes result 
from our own observations; but we must confess that 
we have not had the time to make with these metals 
so conclusive and numerous experiments as with those 
of the preceding series. Therefore, we have been 
obliged to borrow occasionally from authors who, 
like ourselves, have examined these alloys more from 
traditional data than from well-verified experiments. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Copper. — These alloys are 
easily effected, notwithstanding the difference in the 
points of fusion of the two metals. They are brittle, 
and of a pale red color, whatever the proportions em- 
ployed. The specific gravity of the alloys is sensibly 
equal to the average of the two metals. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Zinc. — These alloys are 
seldom made, and produce a metal more brittle, pre- 
senting a larger crystallization, with less adherence, 
than zinc or bismuth taken singly. On that account 
they are useless in the arts. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Tin. — The combinations of 
bismuth and tin take place easily, and in all propor- 
tions. A very small quantity of bismuth imparts to 
tin more hardness, sonorousness, lustre, and fusibility. 
On that account, and for certain applications, a little 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 107 

bismuth is added to tin in order to increase its hard- 
ness. However, bismuth being easily oxidized, and 
often containing arsenic, the alloys of tin and bismuth 
would be dangerous for the manufacture of certain 
domestic implements, such as culinary vessels, pots, etc. 

The alloys of bismuth and tin are more fusible than 
each of the metals taken separately. 

An alloy of equal parts of the two metals is fusible, 
according to se-veral authors who disagree, at a tem- 
perature varying from 100° to 150° Centigrade. These 
differences are evidently due to an incorrect measuring 
of the temperature, or to the temperature being taken 
after the proper time of fusion. 

When tin is alloyed with as little as 5 per cent, of 
bismuth, its oxide acquires the peculiar yellowish-gray 
color of the bismuth oxide. 

According to Eudberg, melted bismuth begins to 
solidify at 261°, and tin at 228°. For the alloys of 
the two metals the "constant point" is 143° C. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Lead. — These two metals are 
immediately alloyed by simple fusion, with merely the 
ordinary precautions. The alloys are malleable and 
ductile as long as the proportion of bismuth does not 
exceed that of lead; they are also much more tena- 
cious than lead. 

The alloy of bismuth 2, and lead 3 parts, is about 
ten times harder than pure lead. 

The compounds of bismuth and lead generally have 
a dark gray color, with a tint intermediate between 
the color of tin and that of lead. Their fracture is 
lamellar, and their specific gravity greater than the 
mean specific gravity of either metal taken singly. 

An alloy of equal parts of bismuth and lead has a 
specific gravity equal to 10.71. It is white, lustrous, 
sensibly harder than lead, and more malleable. The 
ductility and malleability diminish with an increased 



108 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOE METALLIC ALLOYS. 

proportion of bismuth, while they increase with the 
excess of lead in the alloy. 

An alloy of bismuth 1 and lead 2 is very ductile, 
and may be laminated into thin sheets without cracks. 
Berthier says that its point of fusion is 166° C. 

According to Eudberg, melted lead beginning to 
solidify at 825°, the " constant point" for the alloy of 
the two metals is 129° C. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Iron. — The learned disagree 
as to the possibility of combining bismuth and iron. 
Up to the present day, the combinations indicated are 
rather doubtful. 

At all events, the principal fact is, that the presence 
of bismuth in iron tends to render this metal brittle, 
and is not an improvement in its manufacture. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Antimony. — These alloys are 
grayish, brittle, lamellar, like the alloys of bismuth and 
zinc, and present no real utility in the arts. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Nickel. — As with the preced- 
ing combinations, we are not aware of any interesting 
application of the alloys of bismuth and nickel. 

Alloys of Bismuth and Arsenic. — These alloys are 
more brittle and more fusible than bismuth. This 
metal, which is found in nature combined with arsenic, 
appears to have little affinity for it, when we make 
alloys. Nothing practical has been accomplished in 
the alloys of bismuth and arsenic. Arsenic is rapidly 
volatilized, and the very small proportion which is 
absorbed by bismuth is easily oxidized. Therefore 
the many difficulties attending the formation of the 
alloy, which itself presents little interest, have prevent- 
ed further examinations. 

General Observations. — It will be seen from the 
preceding data, that the alloys of bismuth are not at 
the present time important in the arts, excepting the 
fusible alloys made of bismuth and certain white metals, 
such as tin, lead, &c. The alloys of bismuth with tin, 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 109 

the latter predominating, seem to be the most interest- 
ing. The great fusibility of the alloys of bismuth and 
lead will have the effect of popularizing these alloys, 
and also those with tin, as soon as bismuth can be 
obtained in abundance and at a less cost. 

To sum up, the action of bismuth in alloys is to in- 
crease their hardness, fusibility, and brittleness. But, 
although bismuth renders brittle the metals with which 
it combines, it does so a great deal less than arsenic or 
antimony, for instance. 

Alloys of Antimony and Copper. — These two metals 
rapidly combine by fusion. Whatever are the pro- 
portions, and especially when antimony predominates, 
the alloys are brittle, of a violet color, and with a spe- 
cific gravity above the average one of the two metals, 
considered singly. 

The alloy by equal parts, which was named by the 
ancients Regulus of Venus, is of a grayish- violet color, 
which tends to a nearly pure violet when the propor- 
tion of copper increases within certain limits. 

An alloy of antimony 1 and copper 3 seems to pos- 
sess the violet shade to the utmost degree. It is dry, 
brittle, lamellar, more fusible than copper, and has a 
fine lustre when polished. 

An alloy of antimony 1 and copper 6 is a reddish- 
yellow, having more of the copper than of the violet 
color. Its fracture is dryer, not so even, and more 
granular than the preceding one. 

According to Mr. Herve, author of a manual of alloys, 
antimony will whiten the copper with which it is alloyed 
more than is the case with an equal proportion of zinc. 

Alloys of Antimony and Zinc. — The alloys of anti- 
mony and zinc are but little known. They are exceed- 
ingly brittle, and too easily oxidized by heat ; their 
fracture is very lamellar and of a steel-gray color. 
They have presented but little interest to experimenters. 

Alloys of Antimony and Tin. — The alloys of anti- 



110 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

mony and tin are as white as tin, but harder and a 
great deal less ductile. They are the more brittle as 
the proportion of antimony is greater. 

The specific gravity of these alloys is below that 
which would be calculated from the specific gravity 
of each metal, taken si ugly. 

An alloy of tin 80 and antimony 20, although not 
so malleable as pure tin, is sufficiently so to be lami- 
nated and hammered when cold. It is by remaining 
near these proportions that the proper alloys of tin 
and antimony are made for the manufacture of tin pots 
and engraving plates. 

Alloys of Antimony and Lead. — Antimony increases 
the hardness of lead, and renders it very brittle when 
the proportion of antimony is considerable. The alloy 
of lead 76 and antimony 24 appears to be the point 
of saturation of the two metals. More fusible than the 
average fusibility of the two component metals, ductile, 
and harder than lead, this alloy expands in cooling. 
To this property is due the employment of this alloy 
for the manufacture of type. But the above compound 
does not answer perfectly well, especially for small 
type. When too soft, it gets out of shape; when too 
hard, it cuts the paper ; and it happens too often that 
the founder passes to one or the other extreme. When 
the alloy is melted in contact with the air, antimony 
is oxidized much before lead ; and this accounts for 
the difficulty of obtaining an exact composition. It is 
a constant subject of study for type-founders, to arrive 
at a fusible and homogeneous metal, with much expan- 
sion, as resisting as possible, and at the same time soft 
enough to be repaired, and to bear the action of the 
press without being soon put out of shape. 

The alloy of equal proportions is dry, porous, and 
brittle. These defects increase in the same ratio as the 
proportion of antimony. On the other hand, they dis- 
appear when the lead takes the place of antimony. 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. Ill 

An alloy of antimony 1 and lead 4 is compact, much 
harder than lead, and remains malleable. 

An alloy of antimony 1 and lead 8 possesses much 
tenacity, and a specific gravity greater than the pro- 
portional specific gravity of the two metals. It is more 
malleable than the preceding alloy, and retains a cer- 
tain hardness. The hardness imparted by antimony, 
the increase of tenacity, and that of the specific gravity, 
are very perceptible up to the alloy of antimony 1 and 
lead 16. 

Alloys of Antimony and Iron. — The two metals ap- 
pear to have a mutual affinity. Their alloys, which 
are easily effected, are much more fusible than iron, 
and are white, hard, and brittle. 

Their specific gravity is less than the average of the 
two metals. The alloy made of antimony 70 and iron 
30 is quite fusible, white, and very hard. That made 
of antimony 30 and iron 70 is exceedingly hard, flies 
under the hammer, and produces sparks when filed. 

Mr. Herve' has experimented with various alloys of 
antimony with cast iron. We cite the following : — ■ 

1 part of antimony. 100 parts of cast iron. 

2 " " 100 " " 

3 " " 100 " " 

Antimony was added to the iron only when the 
latter was in fusion in the crucible. 

The fracture of the samples of the first alloy was 
uneven, striated, and lamellar ; the crystallization was 
confused, divergent, with a certain lustre, and grayish- 
white. 

The fracture of the samples of the second alloy was, 
like the preceding, uneven, striated, and lamellar ; the 
crystallization was confused, and of a grayish-white 
color, but duller. 

The fracture of the samples of the third alloy pre- 
sented the same characteristics as the preceding alloys, 
but the color was duller and darker. These samples 



112 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

like those of the second series, were very hard and 
brittle; square bars, with a side equal to 1.7 centimetre, 
were broken when falling on the ground, from a height 
equal to 1 metre. 

Mr. Herve' has inferred, from these three experiments, 
that antimony is not entirely volatilized when thrown 
into fused cast iron, and that a portion remains in combi- 
nation with the iron, on account of its affinity for the 
latter metal. On the other hand, antimony exerts a 
powerful influence on the crystallization of iron, during 
the cooling. One per cent, of antimony, at most, is 
sufficient to alter the fracture of cast iron, which then 
resembles that of zinc. 

At all events, these alloys appear to be without 
application in the arts. They increase the brittleness 
of cast iron, whereas we always try to develop its 
tenacity. Cast iron may, it is true, thus acquire a little 
more lustre, when polished; but the advantage is so 
slight, that it does not warrant the increase of cost. 

Alhys of Antimony and Nickel. — These alloys are 
brittle, of a lead color, and do not present any utility. 
They have not been studied. 

Alloys of Antimony and Arsenic. — The two metals 
may be alloyed in every proportion. They combine 
with a production of light, and the resulting compound 
is, to a certain point, like the brittle and gray metallic 
mass found in the mineral kingdom, where native anti- 
mony is often found combined with arsenic. 

The alloys of antimony and arsenic, which do not, 
however, present any interest, are very fusible, very 
hard and brittle, and present a fracture, with lamellar 
facets smaller and more characterized than those of 
pure antimony. 

General Observations. — The useful alloys of anti- 
mony are those where this metal is combined with tin 
and lead. They are employed in the manufacture of 
types, engraving plates, and tin pots. The action of 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 113 

antimony is also of interest in certain ternary or quater- 
nary alloys, where, like most of the metals used in 
such combinations, it tends to aid in the formation of 
a more complete and thorough alloy. 

The ternary alloys of antimony, lead, and arsenic ; 
antimony, lead, and bismuth ; antimony, tin, and bis- 
muth; antimony, copper, and lead; antimony, tin, and 
lead ; antimony, lead, and zinc — have been, or are yet 
employed, some for the manufacture of types, others 
for that of ectypes or engraving plates. We, may then, 
say that antimony has been the indispensable, if not 
the predominating, base of all the alloys experimented 
upon for typographical or printing purposes. 

Notwithstanding all these experiments, the known 
alloys are not perfect; and very likely a long period 
will elapse before we arrive at the best alloy for 
printing, that is to say, one fulfilling all the conditions 
of hardness, malleability, tenacity, expansion, and mild- 
ness, which have been found necessary by all those 
who have tried to improve the manufacture of types. 

Amongst the quaternary alloys, where antimony 
has been found useful, we may cite the alloys of anti- 
mony, bismuth, copper, and tin; antimony, bismuth, 
tin, and lead ; which have been, or are yet employed 
in the manufacture of the English metals called pewter 
and queen's metal, from which teapots and vases imi- 
tating silver have been made. 
The following alloys of:—- 

Antimony, silver, copper, and zinc ; 

Antimony, tin, zinc, and steel ; 

Antimony, copper, iron, and lead ; 

Antimony, copper, tin, and zinc; 

Antimony, copper, tin, and lead ; 
have been tried for the manufacture of metallic mirrors, 
buttons, and other products, when it was desirable to 
obtain a fine polish, a bright lustre, a certain hardness s 

10* 



114 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and at the same time a sufficient mildness or mallea- 
bility to allow of their being worked. 

A remarkable property of antimony is to render 
brittle the metals with which it is united, even when 
it is in small proportion. This should be remembered, 
when we desire to employ this metal in experimenting 
on new alloys. 

Alloys of Nickel and Copper.- — The alloys of nickel 
and copper are easily effected by fusion. In the mineral 
kingdom, nickel is united with copper. In Piedmont, 
in the valley of the Sesia, are to be found large deposits 
of white magnetic pyrites, holding 5 per cent, of nickel 
and 1J per cent, of copper. In other countries, the 
nickel is to be found, under the name of white copper, 
amongst the slags of certain copper-works, where the 
nickel had been allowed to go to waste. 

The alloy of 1 part of nickel and 2 of copper gives 
a grayish-white metal, slightly crystalline at the 
surface, tenacious, ductile, and sufficiently fusible. 

Alloys of Nickel and Zinc. — Few experiments have 
been made on these alloys. According to certain 
chemists, Thomson for instance, nickel does not alloy 
with zinc by fusion. Others, on the contrary, assert 
that an alloy is possible, and they give as a proof, the 
use of it by the Chinese for the composition of their 
palcfong, or white copper. 

Berthier has tried to make an alloy of nickel and 
zinc ; the resulting button had the composition of nickel 
0.53 and zinc 0.47. It had a fine silver-white color, 
and could be hammered before it would crack and 
break. From this experiment, this skilful chemist 
infers that it might be possible to employ zinc for 
making, on a small scale, a melted nickel, compact and 
malleable. This is the most striking fact we have 
collected among the data, given by various authors, 
on the subject of alloys of nickel and zinc. 

Alloys of Nickel and Tin. — We do not find any im- 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 115 

portant experiments on these alloys. This remark 
applies equally to the alloys of nickel and lead. These 
alloys, however, are possible ; and, if they do not ap- 
pear immediately useful as binary combinations, they 
may become serviceable in the ternary and quaternary 
alloys, by introducing copper or zinc, or both, into the 
combinations of nickel and tin, or nickel and lead. 

Alloys of Nickel and Iron. — Nickel easily unites with 
iron, and gives, according to certain authors, a soft and 
tenacious alloy. This fact is open to discussion. We 
may be allowed to suppose that nickel, like copper, 
has a tendency to render cast iron dry and brittle. 
Meteoric iron, and certain aerolites, contain from 3 to 
10 per cent, of nickel. 

This kind of iron, generally very soft when it is not 
combined with substances other than carbon, may 
acquire a very fine polish. It may be imitated by 
certain alloys of iron and nickel, which are less easily 
oxidized than iron, and remain ductile as long as the 
proportion of nickel is not over 10 per cent. 

In England, MM. Faraday and Stodart have tried 
to reproduce meteoric iron with the following alloys. 
They melted in a crucible 97 parts of good iron and 
3 parts of nickel : the alloy had the appearance of 
being as malleable and easily worked as pure iron. 
When polished, its color was quite white; the specific 
gravity was 7.804. 

Another alloy of iron 90 and nickel 10 produced a 
metal having a yellow tint after having been polished, 
a specific gravity equal to 7.849, less oxidizable and 
malleable than iron, and more brittle than the pre- 
ceding alloy. 

An alloy of the same kind, tried by Berthier, by 
reducing in a brasqued crucible a mixture of oxides 
corresponding to 12 parts of iron and 1 part of nickel, 
gave a metal semi-ductile, very tenacious, with a 



116 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

fracture granular and slightly scaly, and presenting 
exactly the characteristics of meteoric iron. 

MM. Faraday and Stodart have also succeeded in 
combining steel and nickel in the proportion of 10 
parts of nickel with from 80 to 100 parts of steel. 

But, in opposition to what has been previously 
related in regard to iron, they mention that steel, 
combined with nickel, is more easily oxidized than 
pure steel. 

M. Dumas thinks that such alloys might be service- 
able for the manufacture of telescopic mirrors, which 
quite contradicts the opinion that they are easily 
oxidized. 

On the other hand, Karsten believes that the experi- 
ments of MM. Stodart and Faraday produced no true 
chemical combinations ; and that, if a metal united 
with steel only by simple mixture, may increase its 
tenacity, the same effect may not take place with a 
thorough combination. Recent and not very conclu- 
sive experiments have been made in that direction, 
for combining cast iron and steel with wolfram (tung- 
sten), in the hope that a resistance superior to that of 
the ordinary metals will be obtained. 

Alloys of Nickel and Arsenic. — We mention these 
combinations rather as existing in nature than as a 
future source of useful alloys for the arts. According 
to Berzelius, nickel easily combines with arsenic, and 
holds it, even when submitted to a very high tempera- 
ture. A small proportion of arsenic added to nickel 
does not impair the malleability or the magnetic pro- 
perty of the latter metal, but increases its fusibility. 
Alloys made under these conditions are very hard, 
and tinged with a light red shade. Their specific 
gravity, according to Thomson, is much below the 
average of the two metals. 

General Observations. — The preceding indica- 
tions show sufficiently well that nickel and its alloys 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 117 

have been submitted to sufficiently thorough investi- 
gations, in order to reveal unexpected facts. It is, 
however, sure that if nickel were produced in greater 
abundance, this metal would find new and useful appli- 
cations. At the present time, the industrial uses of 
metallic nickel seem to be confined to certain alloys 
with copper and zinc, which, in Birmingham espe- 
cially, are employed in the manufacture of white 
metal wares, imitating the color, lustre, and polish of 
silver. The proportions of these alloys remain in the 
neighborhood of copper 8. nickel 2 to 6, and zinc from 
So to 6. When the proportion of nickel is below 2 
parts, the metal obtained is not better than a pale brass, 
and tarnishes rapidly in the air. When the proportion 
of nickel is 6 parts or more, the alloy possesses a fine 
polish with much lustre, but is difficult to produce, 
and subject to shrinkage, fracture, and other accidents 
during the casting. 

Alloys of Arsenic and Co}oper. — It is difficult to com- 
bine directly copper and arsenic. This latter metal is not 
held with sufficient strength by the copper, whose high 
point of fusion volatilizes it before the combination 
can take place. 

The alloy is obtained by melting copper and arsenic 
in a covered crucible, with a layer of salt or charcoal- 
dust, in order to prevent oxidation of the arsenic by 
the air. 

The alloy of equal parts of copper and arsenic is 
white, brittle, and without malleability. It becomes 
slightly ductile and malleable only by considerably 
diminishing the proportion of arsenic. The contact 
of the air tarnishes it. By calcination, the greater part 
of the arsenic disappears by volatilization, and the 
remaining metal regains a certain malleability. 

The alloys of copper and arsenic are generally known 
under the name of white copper or tombac. 

The ordinary composition of these alloys is about 



118 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

copper 62 and arsenic 37. They are of a brilliant gray 
color, very brittle, fusible at a red heat, and unaltered 
at the temperature of boiling water. By increasing 
the proportion of copper, the alloy becomes whitish, 
somewhat ductile, and is preferred for the manufacture 
of small articles of white copper. 

Alloys of Arsenic and Zinc. — The alloys of these two 
metals are difficult of preparation. They are very 
brittle, and useless for the present wants of the arts. 

Alloys of Arsenic and Tin. — These two metals easily 
combine by fusion, and in all proportions. The alloys 
are gray, lamellar, brittle, and less fusible than tin. 

By its union with arsenic, tin becomes whiter, more 
brilliant, harder, and more sonorous ; but it becomes 
very brittle if it contains but one per cent, of arsenic. 

6 parts of arsenic with 100 of tin are sufficient to 
produce an alloy, crystallizing with large laminae, like 
bismuth, and entirely deprived of ductility. 

The alloys of arsenic and tin are of no actual utility 
in the arts. A compound of arsenic 1 part and tin 3 
parts is employed in laboratories for the preparation 
of the arseniureted hydrogen gas. The arsenides of 
zinc may be used instead. 

Alloys of Arsenic and Lead. — These combinations are 
not produced without difficulty, and not equally easy 
in all proportions. Beyond the proportions of arsenic 
16 parts and lead 84 parts, which seem to be the highest 
degree for an intimate atomical combination, the ar- 
senides, where the proportion of arsenic is greater, are 
easily decomposed by raising the temperature. The 
metal also becomes brittle, and presents a fracture like 
that of bismuth, but of a darker color. 

The arsenides of lead are, therefore, the less ductile 
and the more brittle, as they contain more arsenic ; 
their fracture is brilliant, lamellar, and of a grayish- 
white color. They are very fusible. 

A white heat expels a notable portion of the arsenic, 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 119 

and seems to leave an arsenide having the constant 
composition of arsenic 1 and lead 2, which will bear a 
very high temperature without losing weight. 

The arsenide of lead is employed for facilitating the 
manufacture of shot lead, which is prepared, as we 
know, by letting fall from an elevated place drops of 
lead into water. An addition of two or three thousandths 
of arsenic to the lead helps its solidification, and gives 
to the shot a more spherical shape. 

Alloys of Arsenic and Iron. — These alloys are possi- 
ble in various proportions, but they have no direct 
utility in the arts. The alloy is more or less white, 
hard, brittle, and with a fracture resembling that of 
steel, with grains finer than those of iron. The most 
evident result of the combinations of arsenic with iron, 
and we may say with most metals, is that iron becomes 
harsh, brittle, and loses much of its malleability and 
ductility even with a very small amount of arsenic. 

General Observations. — The alloys of arsenic, 
generally known under the name of arsenides, are 
rather " unions" than alloys of metals. Nevertheless, 
these " unions" possess a metallic lustre. The effect 
of the presence of arsenic is to increase the brittleness 
and fusibility of the metals with which it is united. 

The arsenides having a certain importance in the 
arts are the alloys of arsenic and copper, known under 
the name of white coppers. Among the ternary and 
quaternary combinations, we may mention the follow- 
ing, which are more or less employed : — 

Arsenic, antimony, and lead, for types. 

Arsenic, bismuth, and copper, for buttons. 

Arsenic, copper, and tin, tried for the manufacture 
of telescopic mirrors, and other optical instruments. 

Arsenic, copper, tin, and zinc, also tried for telescopic 
mirrors. 

Amalgams. — These are alloys of mercury and other 
metals ; but we shall not dwell on these compounds, as 



120 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

they do not strictly belong to our subject, which com- 
prises more especially those combinations obtained by 
fusion in the foundry. 

The amalgams of mercury and copper are difficult of 
preparation, and present no practical interest. 

Mercury and zinc give white compounds, very brittle, 
and remaining pasty when mercury predominates. 

Mercury and tin combine in all proportions with the 
aid of heat, and will also combine at the ordinary tem- 
perature. The amalgam formed of mercury 10 parts 
and tin 1 is liquid, and resembles mercury, except that 
it does not run so well. 

An amalgam of equal parts of mercury and tin is 
solid. 

An amalgam of mercury and lead, half and half, is 
susceptible of crystallization. With the aid of heat, 
lead is very rapidly dissolved by mercury. At the 
ordinary temperature, the solution is effected by rubbing 
and trituration. Mercury may absorb half of its weight 
of lead, and yet remain liquid. 

Mercury and iron do not directly combine. Mercury 
being without action upon iron, it is kept and trans- 
ported in iron bottles or vessels. The amalgams of iron 
which are effected with the aid of potassium and zinc, 
or by any other indirect process, have no stability* 

Mercury and bismuth may form a kind of solution, 
by which mercury absorbs a great proportion of bis- 
muth, without losing its fluidity; the drops, however, 
affect the pear shape. The amalgam of mercury 4 
parts and bismuth 1 part is very fusible, and may be 
used for tinning, it being very adhesive to bodies with 
which it comes in contact. 

The amalgams of antimony are granular, white, with- 
out consistence, and present no interest. 

* The greater part of these data are borrowed from the interesting 
works of Mr. Berthier. — Author. 



ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 121 

The same remarks apply to the amalgams of nickel 
and arsenic. 

The amalgams which are most employed in the arts, 
and outside of those which belong to the laboratory, 
are those of tin for silvering mirrors, and the prepara- 
tion of mosaic gold; and of tin or zinc for exciting 
electrical apparatus, &c. Mercury also enters into the- 
composition of a few ternary and quaternary com- 
pounds, of which we may mention : — 

A fraudulent amalgam of mercury 3 parts, lead 1 
part, and bismuth 1 part, which is very fluid at the 
ordinary temperature, and is used for adulterating 
mercury. This alloy, which is fluid enough to pass 
through chamois leather like pure mercury, has its 
drops pear-shaped ; which is a means of ascertaining 
the fraud. 

The amalgam of Mr. Makenzie, which is solid at the 
ordinary temperature, and becomes liquid by simple 
friction, may be prepared as follows : melt 2 parts of 
bismuth and 4 parts of lead in separate crucibles ; then 
throw the melted metals into two other crucibles, each 
containing 1 part of mercury. When cold, these 
alloys or amalgams are solid, but will melt when rubbed 
one against the other. 

The amalgams of mercury, bismuth, tin, and lead, 
which are very fusible, are employed for metallic 
injections, and the silvering of the inside of glass globes 
and hollow mirrors, &c. 

There is, in our opinion, no doubt that these metals 
of secondary importance in the arts, which we have 
just examined, will yet be called to take an important 
part in the practice of the industrial arts ; and that 
several of their alloys will sooner or later emerge from 
the experimental state, in which, up to the present 
time, they have given only neutral results. 

For this, it will be necessary, as with copper, 
zinc, tin, and lead, to take bismuth, antimony, arsenic, 
11 



122 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOK METALLIC ALLOYS. 

and nickel, and examine their combinations between 
each other, and afterwards those with the other metals. 
We do not here mention mercury, because this metal 
will require other kinds of experiments. 

It will, therefore, be necessary to undertake a long 
series of comparative experiments, and not to abandon 
them until all the practical facts have been gathered. 
But such experiments are not easy, and cannot be con- 
ducted in a short time and without expense. They 
will consume much time and money, which are not at 
the disposal of everybody. 

For us, these experiments would be very attractive. 
They were even a part of our programme when we 
undertook our first studies. But it is impossible to 
say that we will ever find the opportunity and the 
years necessary for their study. 



III. 

ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS, BELONGING 

ESPECIALLY TO THE ARTS OP LUXURY. 

The metals of which we will treat in this chapter 
are gold, silver, platinum, and aluminium. We shall 
consider them in regard to their combinations with the 
preceding metals, and between themselves. 

We shall try to pass rapidly over the data which 
present no interest in the arts, leaving for the end of 
this book, where we sum up all the known alloys, the 
completion of what we have omitted or have not clearly 
explained. 

Alloys of Gold and Copper. — Gold and copper have 
a great mutual affinity, and may be alloyed in all pro- 
portions. 

The alloys are harder and more fusible than gold 
alone. Copper diminishes the ductility of gold, when 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 123 

it enters into the combination in a proportion over 10 
to 12 per cent. 

The great value of gold is the reason, in every case, 
why the proportion of copper in the alloy should not 
be very considerable. This remark applies equally to 
all the alloys of gold, and of the metals of this chapter, 
with all the common metals. We may hence observe, 
that the more precious a metal is, the less it should be 
mixed with common metals, in order not to be debased. 
Or, in other words, the higher the value of a metal, the 
greater should be the proportion of this metal in the 
alloy, unless in a very few cases, when a certain pur- 
pose is to be reached without reference to cost. 

However, there are exceptions ; as, for instance, when 
the costly metal being combined in a small proportion 
with a common metal, increases the value of the latter 
by imparting to it new and valuable properties. Such 
is the case with aluminium and copper. Aluminium, 
at the present time, is expensive, and therefore a pre- 
cious metal. But when it is combined in a small pro- 
portion with copper, for the manufacture of the alumi- 
nium bronze, a new compound is produced which 
possesses many of the qualities of the precious metals, 
that is, lustre, brilliancy, solidity, and, above all, a 
great resistance to oxidation. We may, therefore, 
employ aluminium in small or large proportions, but 
we cannot do so in regard to gold and silver, which 
will be debased by a large admixture of other metals. 

Gold, which is considered as the purest, most unalter- 
able and perfect metal, must acquire a certain hardness, 
which alone it does not possess, for the manufacture of 
coins, medals, jewelry, etc. It acquires that hardness 
and solidity by being alloyed with copper. In such 
alloys, the respective proportions of gold and copper 
form what is called " the degree of fineness." Or, in 
other words, the fineness is the greater as the alloy 
contains more gold. 



124: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The standards or degrees of fineness are variable 
with different countries, and are regulated by law, espe- 
cially those of the coin. We shall further examine 
this subject hereafter. 

The specific gravity of the alloys of gold and cop- 
per is less than the average of the two metals. 

An impure copper alters the malleability of gold, 
and may render it very brittle. A pure copper is 
therefore necessary for these alloys. 

The maximum of hardness caused by the admix- 
ture of copper with gold appears to be when the alloy 
is made in the proportions of gold 7 parts and copper 
1 part. 

Alloys of Gold and Zinc. — The alloys of gold and 
zinc are greenish-yellow, brittle, and susceptible of 
receiving a brilliant polish. The zinc produces a 
sensible contraction in these alloys, and it so readily 
alters the qualities of gold, that when fumes of vola- 
tilized zinc reach melted gold, this latter metal be- 
comes brittle. 

An alloy of gold 11 parts and zinc 1 part resembles 
the pale yellow brass obtained with an excess of zinc. 
Its specific gravity is 19.937, and it does not tarnish. 

Alloys of Gold and Tin. — The alloys of gold and 
tin are easily effected by fusion, and in all proportions. 
They are generally brittle; but may retain a certain 
ductility, when the proportion of tin is not over one- 
twelfth. The color of these alloys is pale and nearly 
white. Like the alloys of gold and zinc, the union of 
the two metals produces contraction. 

Alloys of Gold and Lead. — These alloys may be pro- 
duced in all proportions; they are exceedingly brittle, 
and without any utility in the arts. According to Ber- 
thier, one-half of one-thousandth of lead alloyed to gold 
is sufficient to render the latter metal entirely brittle, 
and without any ductility. All the alloys of gold and 
lead present the phenomenon of expansion, which is 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 125 

the greater when the proportion of lead diminishes, 
and its place is taken by copper, the proportion of 
gold remaining constant. 

The maximum of expansion takes place when the 
lead is only 0.001 of the alloy. 

An alloy of gold 11 parts and lead 1 part possesses 
the color of gold; but its fragility is such that it 
breaks like glass. Its fracture is finely granular, of 
a light brown, with a metallic lustre, and the appear- 
ance of broken chinaware. 

The specific gravity of this alloy, which is harder 
and more fusible than gold, is 18.080, or a little less 
than the average specific gravity of the two alloyed 
metals. 

Alloys of Gold and Iron. — Gold and iron easily com- 
bine in all proportions. Their mutual affinity is very 
great, and their alloy is decomposed with difficulty. 
Gold facilitates the fusion of iron, which is a proof of 
the tendency of these metals to become alloyed. 

According to Karsten, iron does not change the 
tenacity of gold ; and, on the other hand, gold does not 
seem to impair the qualities of iron, or to be an im- 
pediment to its manufacture. 

An alloy of gold 1 part and iron 3 parts melts at a 
temperature below the point of fusion of iron. 

An alloy of equal parts of gold and iron is of a gray- 
ish color, brittle, and somewhat magnetic. An alloy 
which contains T ^ of iron is pale yellow, and the color 
becomes grayish-yellow when the proportion of iron 
is increased to j. The alloy is grayish-white when 
the atomical proportions are 3 to i for iron and 1 for 
gold. 

The alloy holding £ of iron is employed in jewelry, 
under the name of gray gold. The alloy where iron 
enters as § or f has been tried for making cutting in- 
struments. This furnishes a metal susceptible of tak- 
ing a hard temper. 

11* 



126 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloys of Gold and Bismuth. — The alloys are ob- 
tained by fusion, in all proportions; tbey have the 
appearance of brass, and are harsh and brittle. A trace 
of bismuth is sufficient for rendering gold brittle and 
without ductility. The action of bismuth on gold is 
the same as that of zinc. Vapors of bismuth, in con- 
tact with melted gold, are sufficient to impair the mal- 
leability of gold, and make it brittle. 

The alloys all present the phenomenon of contrac- 
tion ; they are greenish-yellow, and their fracture is 
finely granular, with an earthy appearance. A com- 
pound made of equal parts of gold and bismuth has 
a specific gravity equal to 18.058, and suffers a loss 
in volume equal to 1.2 per cent., which shows a con- 
siderable contraction. 

Alloys of Gold and Antimony. — Antimony possesses 
a remarkable affinity for gold, and dissolves it rapidly. 
The slightest fume of antimony is sufficient to alter the 
malleability of gold, and cause its brittleness. The 
alloys of gold and antimony are of a pale yellow color, 
and their fracture is finely granular, resembling that 
of chinaware. 

The facility with which antimony unites with gold, 
attracted, from the earliest epochs of science, the atten- 
tion of the alchemists, who pretended that gold increased 
in weight, when, after having been combined with anti- 
mony, the latter metal was separated. From that false 
idea, due to an imperfect separation, it had been sup- 
posed that antimony exerted a certain influence on the 
production of gold, and therefore favored the " trans- 
mutation." Thence the name of Regulus (little king) 
given to antimony, as characterizing the tendency of 
gold to assimilate this metal. 

Alloys of Gold and Nickel. — To the best of our know- 
ledge, these alloys have not been experimented upon. 
Some useful results might possibly occur by trying to 
substitute nickel for copper in certain gold alloys. 



ALLOYS OF THE PKECIOUS METALS. 127 

Alloys of Gold and Arsenic. — Gold easily combines 
with arsenic ; the products are white or grayish-white, 
and very brittle. One-thousandth of arsenic is suffi- 
cient to take off all the malleability of gold, although 
its color is not changed. The arsenide of gold, pre- 
pared by exposing melted gold to the fumes of arsenic, 
is white and very brittle. Once united with gold, 
arsenic cannot be removed, except by a very high heat. 

Amalgam of Gold. — Mercury has a very powerful 
action on gold ; it dissolves it in large proportions, 
without losing its fluidity. The point of saturation 
appears to be 2 parts of gold for 1 part of mercury. 
The gold amalgam may be produced at a very low 
temperature, by the fumes of mercury. A piece of 
gold, rubbed with mercury, is immediately penetrated 
by it, and becomes exceedingly brittle. 

The compound of gold and mercury is white, pasty, 
and crystallizes when cooled slowly. The amalgam, 
saturated with gold, is yellowish-white, remains soft, 
and may be kneaded between the fingers. 

The great affinity of gold and mercury is the base of 
all the processes for gilding metals, especially copper. 
For gilding copper, bronze, and brass, we employ 
amalgams formed of 8 to 9 parts of mercury to 1 of 
gold. The uses of these amalgams have been greatly 
lessened since the adoption of the galvanoplastic 
methods. The description of the old process is to be 
found in a special treatise by d'Arcet ; and we refer 
those of our readers who may be interested in the 
gilding process to that and other treatises on the 
subject. 

Alloys of Gold and Silver. — Gold and silver may 
be easily mixed together, but do not appear to form 
true combinations. These alloys, more fusible than 
gold, do not seem to unite intimately, except in small 
proportions, and that without evident utility. Made 
within these conditions, the compounds are generally 



128 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

greenish- white, more ductile, harder, more sonorous 
and elastic than gold or silver, considered singly. 
One-twentieth of silver is sufficient to modify the 
color of gold. 

Silver, like copper, increases the firmness and tough- 
ness of gold, and on that account it is employed at 
various degrees of fineness for jewelry work. These 
alloys are known by jewellers under the names of 
yellow gold, green gold, and pale gold, according to the 
proportion of silver. Green gold contains about 30 
per cent, of silver; and pale or white gold, as much 
as 66 per cent. 

Gilt silver is silver gilt with gold amalgams, and by 
processes of manufacture similar to those employed for 
gilding copper. 

At all events, whatever is the temperature, the alloys 
of gold and silver are not susceptible of oxidation, 
whether by contact with the atmospheric air or with 
pure oxygen. 

Alloys, of Gold and Platinum. — The two metals may 
be alloyed in all proportions ; but, on account of the 
infusibility of platinum, the alloy takes place only at 
a very high heat. All of these alloys are ductile and 
very elastic. 

The combinations of gold and platinum have been 
studied by many chemists, who do not entirely agree, 
even on the appearance of the alloys. Some pretend 
that a very small proportion of platinum is sufficient 
to modify the yellow color of gold, and that an alloy 
made of 4 to 6 parts of gold to 1 of platinum pos- 
sesses nearly the color of pure platinum. Others, 
on the contrary, claim that as long as the proportion 
of platinum is not over one-seventeenth of the alloy, 
the color of gold is not sensibly altered. 

It would be interesting to ascertain the limit of modi- 
fication in the color of gold, as, for instance, in the case of 
platinum fraudulently alloyed with gold. This fraud, 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 129 

which at a certain epoch was to be feared, does not 
appear to be extensively practised, and may be de- 
tected by the powerful means which modern chemistry 
possesses for determining and separating the most 
intimate compounds. 

General Observations. — From the preceding 
data, we observe that gold is one of the metals which 
most readily enters into combination with other 
metals. But this property is without importance 
when we consider the inutility of the majority of the 
compounds, and the necessity of not debasing the 
value or impairing the qualities of gold. Moreover, 
it is certain that, excepting its alloys with copper, 
silver, iron, and platinum, the latter two being without 
actual utility, gold loses part of its ductility, resistance, 
and cohesion when it is combined with other metals, 
such as zinc, tin, lead. etc. Therefore it is entirely 
useless to experiment on those alloys where gold loses 
not only part of its money value, but also these valua- 
ble properties which participated in making it a 
precious metal. A similar reasoning will equally 
apply to the ternary or quaternary alloys into which 
gold may enter as a component part; they are not 
rational, and we shall not examine them. 

Alloys of Silver and Copper. — Silver and copper are 
easily alloyed in all proportions. The combination 
takes place with expansion, and its specific gravity is 
less than that calculated from the proportions of the 
component metals. The majority of these alloys are as 
ductile as pure silver, and possess a great deal more 
hardness, elasticity, and sonorousness. The presence 
of copper does not modify the color of silver, so long 
as the proportion of copper is not above 35 to 40 per 
cent. A greater proportion of copper imparts to the 
alloy a yellowish tint, similar to that of brass ; and if 
the combination contains from 65 to 70 per cent, of 



130 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

copper, its color is reddish, approaching the tint of 
pure copper. 

The peculiar qualities of the alloys of silver and 
copper cause them to be preferred, in certain cases, 
and within certain limits, to pure silver, which is want- 
ing in hardness. 

An alloy made of 9 parts of silver and 1 of cop- 
per is white, tough, more fusible than silver, but not 
quite so ductile. These proportions are adopted for 
the French silver coinage. The maximum of hard- 
ness of the alloys of silver and copper appears to be 
when the proportion of copper is one -fifth. 

These alloys of silver and copper, although easily 
effected by the ordinary processes of fusion, are never- 
theless subject to the defect of separation or " liqua- 
tion," which necessitates certain precautions when run- 
ning the metal into the moulds. When such an alloy 
is run into a cold ingot-mould, the centre of the 
ingot is at a lower degree of fineness than the portions 
nearer the mould ; and we observe, also, even in the 
monetary alloys, that all the portions are not of the 
same degree of fineness. 

Alloys of Silver and Zinc. — Silver and zinc easily 
combine, but their products present no interest. They 
have a bluish tint, and a finely granular fracture. 
They are of no practical use. 

Alloys of Silver and Tin. — The alloys of silver and 
tin present the phenomenon of contraction. They are 
harsh, very hard, and brittle. A small proportion of 
tin is sufficient to destroy the ductility of silver, and 
make it brittle. 

Alloys of Silver and Lead. — Silver and lead unite in 
all proportions. A very small proportion of lead is 
sufficient to sensibly diminish the ductility of silver. 
The alloys are more fusible, and of a greater specific 
gravity, than the average of the two component metals. 

An alloy of equal parts of silver and lead possesses 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 131 

a great deal more of the properties of the latter metal 
than of the former. It is soft, and quite ductile and 
malleable. 

An alloy of 1 part of silver and 7 parts of lead is 
grayish-white, less ductile than lead, and much less 
than silver. This alloy is less fusible than pure lead. 

The alloys of silver and lead are easily and entirely 
decomposed by the process of cupellation. Lead plays 
an important part in the metallurgy of silver, which 
it is not our intention to consider here, our object being 
only the alloys proper. 

Alloys of Silver and Iron. — We cannot say whether 
or not these alloys, which present no interest, have 
been the subject of any experiments* 

Alloys of Silver and Bismuth. — These alloys are very 
fusible, harsh, brittle, and lamellar. Their color is 
white, similar to that of bismuth. They possess a cer- 
tain malleability, but are without interest. Bismuth 
is considered by a few chemists as being preferable to 
lead for refining silver ; but its cost is too high for this 
purpose. 

Alloys of Silver and Antimony. — These combine in 
all proportions, and the alloys present a whitish color 
tending to gray when they are overcharged with anti- 
mony. They are always brittle. Certain combinations 
of silver and antimony are found in the natural state, 
which possess a gray lamellar fracture, and a great 
brittleness and fusibility. They are easily decomposed 
by cupellation or fusion with nitre. 

Alloys of Silver and Nickel. — There are no data on 
these compounds. 

Alloys of Silver and Arsenic. — These alloys may be 

* No true alloys of silver and iron have been made, only more 
or less intimate mixtures, where silver appears in the shape of 
drops, or filaments. The experiments of Messrs. Stodart and 
Faraday, made with steel, rather than with iron, show that the 
proportion of -^ of silver corresponds to the best mixture. — Trans. 



132 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

formed directly by fusion ; and the silver will retain a 
certain proportion of arsenic even when the tempera- 
ture is very high. The compound made of 8b' parts of 
silver to 14 parts of arsenic is of a dead grayish-white 
color, brittle, and acquires a metallic lustre by friction. 
It is very fusible. 

Amalgams of Silver. — -Mercury acts upon silver with 
nearly as much power as upon gold. Therefore, silver 
amalgams are employed for silvering, in the same man- 
ner as gold amalgams for gilding. 

The amalgam of silver is white, very fusible, and 
remains soft; its specific gravity is above the average 
of the two metals. It crystallizes easily, is not altered 
by contact with the air, and is dissolved only in a large 
proportion of mercury. It is decomposed by heat. 
This amalgam may be produced by throwing granules 
or scraps of silver into 12 to 15 parts of mercury, 
heated to 200° 0. By pressing the product through a 
chamois-skin, the free mercury runs out, while the 
soft amalgam is retained, and used in that state for 
silvering. 

We find in the mineral kingdom a crystallized silver 
amalgam, which is soft and possesses a very bright 
grayish-white lustre. According to Berthier, its specific 
gravity is 13.755. 

Alloys of Silver and Platinum,. — -Platinum forms with 
silver a white alloy, which is harder and tougher than 
silver, and is less fusible and ductile as the proportion 
of platinum is greater. 

This alloy is difficult to produce, on account of the 
separation of the platinum, due to the superior specific 
gravity of the latter metal. What might be its uses, 
we do not see, unless it is employed for the separation 
of gold from platinum, the alloy of platinum with a 
great excess of silver being soluble in nitric acid, while 
gold remains unaffected. This process may be useful 
for certain kinds of native gold, holding platinum. 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 133 

General Observations. — The alloys of silver pre- 
sent a real interest only when they are made with gold 
or copper. 

With the other metals up to the present time, and 
with very few exceptions, they are of no use in the 
arts. The alloys of silver and gold, and silver and 
copper, are those employed for articles of luxury, and 
for coin. The alloys of silver, gold, and copper are 
used for the same purposes. These ternary compounds 
are much used in England for coins and by goldsmiths. 
An alloy of silver, copper, and tin is made into a solder 
for plated ware and false jewelry. 

The alloys of silver, copper, and platinum are also 
employed, but on a very small scale, for certain articles 
of jewelry and watchmaking. The quaternary com- 
pound of silver, copper, gold, and platinum produces 
an alloy having the appearance of the article known 
under the name of dore (gilt). 

The alloy of silver, copper, tin, and gold is easily 
effected, and gives a tough and lasting metal. This 
alloy is found in certain coins and medals of antiquity. 

The alloy of silver, arsenic, copper, and tin has been 
tried as speculum metal for telescopic mirrors. Equally 
with many other alloys, tried for the same purpose, 
this compound has not fulfilled expectations. 

Alloys of Platinum and Copper. — These alloys are 
obtained by fusion, in all proportions. Like all the 
compounds into which platinum enters, they require 
a high temperature for their fusion. 

The products vary with the proportion of platinum. 
With equal parts, the alloy is of a pale yellow, more 
brittle than malleable. 

A compound of 1 part of platinum to 4 parts of 
copper is hard, although ductile, of a yellow pink 
color, and susceptible of a fine polish. 

A compound of platinum 3 parts and copper 2 
parts is nearly white, vory hard, brittle, and without 
12 



134: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

ductility. When the proportion of platinum is more 
than one-half, the alloy is sensibly hardened, and the 
color of copper rapidly disappears. 

The alloys of platinum and copper, even with a 
small proportion of platinum, are much less oxidable 
than the alloys of copper with zinc or tin, for instance. 

Alloys of Platinum and Zinc. — We know nothing 
relative to these alloys ; moreover, they are scarcely 
possible by the ordinary processes of fusion, on account 
of the great tendency to volatilization in zinc, and the 
high point of fusion of platinum. 

Alloys of Platinum and Tin. — These alloys take place 
in all proportions, but with the oxidation of a con- 
siderable portion of the tin employed, the alloy being 
formed at a white heat. 

They are more or less brittle, or fusible, according 
to the proportions of platinum. A small percentage of 
the latter metal is sufficient to impair, and even destroy, 
the malleability of tin. An alloy of equal parts of pla- 
tinum and tin is brittle, of a dark gray color, and with 
a coarse granular fracture. It tarnishes rapidly after 
being polished. 

If the proportion of platinum is not more than one- 
tenth of the alloy, the latter becomes much more duc- 
tile, white, and lustrous, and its polish is much less 
easily tarnished. 

Alloys of Platinum and Lead. — We possess no data on 
these alloys, which do not appear to have been experi- 
mented upon. 

Alloys of Platinum and Iron. — By the ordinary pro- 
cesses of fusion, platinum appears to combine in all 
proportions, if not with wrought iron, at least with its 
carburized compounds, pig-metal and steel. 

Berthier has tried alloys made of 1 part of platinum 
with from 4 to 10 parts of iron. The fusion was com- 
plete in brasqued crucibles. The fracture of the alloy 
was gray and granular, and it was possible to flatten 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 135 

the metal with a hammer before breaking it. The 
alloy was also easily filed, and presented a fine polish, 
whose tint was more like that of platinum than of iron. 

These alloys appear to have remained within the 
limits of the laboratory, without having ever been em- 
ployed in practice. The same may be said of the alloys 
of steel and platinum, which, however, have been the 
subject of more serious and conclusive trials on an 
industrial scale. 

MM. Stodart and Faraday have made quite positive 
experiments on the alloys of platinum and steel. 

With equal parts, they have obtained a metal which 
takes a very fine polish, not susceptible of being tar- 
nished, and with a specific gravity of 9.862. With 90 
parts of platinum to 20 parts of steel they produced an 
equally homogeneous alloy, which did not tarnish, and 
had a specific gravity equal to 15.88. Both alloys were 
malleable. 

It would seem that platinum presents the advantage 
of removing from steel its tendency to become oxi- 
dized. This is the reason why the alloys of platinum 
and steel have been tried for certain weapons. 

The best proportions for that fabrication appear to 
range between 2 and 3 of platinum for 100 of steel. 

According to M. Dumas, an alloy of platinum 10 
parts and steel 90 parts is very well adapted to the 
fabrication of mirrors. Its specific gravity is 8.1. 

M. Breant, inspector of the mint of Paris, had, about 
twenty years ago, caused to be tried several pieces of 
cutlery made of an alloy of \ part of platinum to 100 
parts of highly carburized steel. 

The bulletins of the "Socie*te d'Bncouragement" have 
mentioned a few very remarkable samples. However, 
since that time, we do not believe that the usual appli- 
cations of these products have followed the experi- 
ments of M. Breant. 

Alloys of Platinum and Bismuth. — These metals 



136 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

combined produce but brittle alloys, which have only 
been experimented upon in a scientific manner by Mr. 
Lewis. With alloys ranging from 1 to 24 parts of 
bismuth to 1 of platinum, Mr. Lewis has obtained brittle 
products, nearly as mild as bismuth; their fracture 
had a foliated appearance, and, by contact with the air, 
acquired a purple, violet, or bluish color. 

Alloys of Platinum and Antimony. — The combination 
of platinum with antimony gives a dark gray alloy, 
hard, harsh, and brittle, whose finely granular fracture 
is a shade darker than that of either metal. A trace 
of antimony is sufficient to render platinum brittle. 

According to Berthier, when a mixture of 2 equiva- 
lents of antimony and 1 of platinum is heated at a high 
temperature, part of the antimony is volatilized, and the 
remaining alloy is compact, very brittle, with a lamel- 
lar fracture, a great lustre, crystalline, and platinum- 
gray, at the surface, but darker than antimony. 

Alloys of Platinum and Nickel. — We have no data 
on these alloys, which do not seem to have been ex- 
amined by chemists. 

Alloys of Platinum and Arsenic. — These metals ap- 
pear to combine in all proportions. A very small pro- 
portion of arsenic is sufficient to make platinum brittle. 
According to The'nard, an alloy of 20 parts of arsenic 
and 2 of platinum presents the following characteris- 
tics : a grayish-white color, great brittleness, and fusi- 
bility below a red heat. The air at the ordinary tem- 
perature has no action on this compound. 

In such alloys the arsenic becomes separated by a 
high temperature, and leaves the platinum in a spongy 
state. 

Amalgams of Platinum. — These amalgams are very 
difficult to produce. Mercury has no action even upon 
forged or drawn out platinum. However, with the aid 
of heat we may obtain platinum amalgams of a fine 
silver-white color, and which may be kept without 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 137 

tarnishing. These amalgams, which are soft at the 
beginning, gradually become hard and brittle. They 
are decomposed by heat, and are generally formed of 
mercury 73 parts and platinum 27. 

General Observations. — The alloys of platinum, 
most of which present no practical interest, have been 
especially the subject of scientific studies and of labo- 
ratory experiments. Their principal applications have 
been the construction of reflectors, the manufacture of 
weapons, and certain precious alloys with gold, silver, 
or copper. 

The high price of platinum causes it to be rarely 
used. Moreover, the high temperature necessary to 
fuse it prevents or renders very difficult the practical 
production of those of its alloys which might become 
useful. Most of the applications of platinum belong to 
the chemical arts, where this metal is employed for' 
crucibles, capsules, retorts, &c. On account of its com- 
parative infusibility or unalterability, platinum has 
been very useful for insuring the success of a great 
many delicate operations, which require that the ves- 
sels employed should not suffer any alteration capable 
of exerting a detrimental influence on the results. 

Aluminium and its Alloys. — We shall not follow for 
these alloys the order adopted with the preceding 
metals. Aluminium is a comparatively new metal, 
the combinations of which with the other metals have 
as yet been little experimented upon up to the present 
day. Its most important industrial applications have 
been its alloys with copper. 

Before aluminium had been obtained in the metallic 
state, its combinations, like those of the metals of the 
next chapter, had presented just enough interest to 
attract the attention of science. Alloys were not then 
thought of, and the experimenters were trying chemi- 
cal assimilations, rather than mechanical alloys, in the 
full sense of the word. 

12* 



138 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

From examination of works treating on the question 
of alloys, we find very few data concerning the intro- 
duction of alumina, not aluminium, into other metallic 
compounds. 

Alumina, which, in the natural state, is combined 
with a certain number of metals, especially with iron, 
takes from their useful qualities, when it remains in 
combination after fusion, rather than imparts new ones 
to them. 

Taking for granted that the damaskeened appear- 
ance of wootz or Indian steel, after being forged and 
polished, was due to alumina, several learned persons 
have studied the alloys of steel and alumina. 

Small pieces of steel were submitted to a protracted 
and very high temperature, and the resulting carbides 
having been powdered and mixed with pure alumina, 
after a powerful heating in a crucible, gave a white 
alloy, very brittle, and granular in structure. 

From 50 to 70 parts of this alloy, melted with from 
500 to 700 parts of good steel, gave a metal which, 
after having been forged, polished, and treated by 
diluted sulphuric acid, had the damaskeened appear- 
ance of wootz steel. 

The specific gravity of this compound, not hammered, 
was 7.665. Although presenting a lamellar fracture, 
the metal was sufficiently malleable to be drawn out 
without flaws or cracks. The grain, after the harden- 
ing process, was exceedingly fine and hard. 

We may be permitted to think that these results of 
more or less authenticated experiments require to be 
confirmed by new experiments, more thorough and 
complete. So many savans have claimed that traces 
of various metals, added to steel, would improve and 
transform the properties of this metal, without the 
results bringing an entire certitude, that we should 
desire new experiments on the subject; the previous 
experiments having been confined to the laboratory, 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 139 

and the results being due to fortuitous circumstances 
which could not be repeated in daily practice. 

There is no doubt that, since industry produces 
metallic aluminium, it will be possible to combine this 
metal in all proportions with the majority of the known 
metals. And supposing that, instead of true alloys, 
we obtain only mixtures, these ; by their metallic 
nature, will find more or less important or useful 
applications in the arts, and, at all events, will furnish 
more correct data than those in the possession of 
science up to the present day. 

Metallic aluminium, as extracted from alumina, the 
base of clays and kaolins, so abundant in nature, ap- 
proaches iron, cobalt, chromium, and nickel in its 
chemical properties ; and gold,, silver, copper, tin, zinc, 
&c, in its physical properties. Its specific gravity, 
however, is an exception among metals, and is as 
low as 2.60, while the average specific gravity of the 
known metals reaches 7.20. 

Aluminium was, for the first time, half a century 
ago, isolated from alumina by Wohler, a German 
chemist; but this metal exhibited its true character- 
istics, only fourteen years ago, through the experiments 
of M. Sainte-Claire Deville. 

The applications of aluminium were quite exagge- 
rated at the beginning. Being light, easily laminated, 
embossed, drawn out, and chased, it was welcomed by 
fashion with a favor too great to be lasting. 

At the present day, we have passed through that in- 
fatuation for a metal, the qualities of which are not 
good enough to rank it among the precious metals. 
Dull in color and soft, aluminium was too expensive to 
vulgarize its applications. Although it has been ex- 
tolled too much, this metal is, nevertheless, a very 
interesting conquest of modern metallurgy. Its manu- 
facture and uses, although limited, have been useful in 
the arts; and the works at Nanterre, where aluminium 



140 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

is produced, refined, and worked, are to be ranked 
among those manufacturing establishments which have 
recourse to the laboratory only for improvements and 
new results. Other works, in England and Germany, 
have been created in the same manner as those of 
Kanterre, and have for several years already produced 
aluminium and its alloys on a manufacturing scale. 

We may form several alloys with aluminium and 
tin, zinc, silver, iron, platinum, copper, &o. ; but most 
of them have no practical interest. Alloyed with the 
precious metals, aluminium takes from them a part of 
their intrinsic value, without imparting new qualities 
to them as a compensation. Combined with certain 
industrial metals, such as zinc, tin, iron, &c, it loses 
itself part of its intrinsic value, without acquiring, 
from what we actually know, any peculiar property 
which might widen the field of its useful applications. 

Its alloys with copper are the only combinations 
which, at the present time, have been seriously practised. 

To speak exactly, the combinations of aluminium 
with the other metals are rather associations than true 
alloys. The low specific gravity of aluminium is a 
drawback to an alloy easily made by the direct process. 
We are obliged to introduce aluminium, gradually 
and by small portions at a time, into the other melted 
metals, in order to saturate them, rather than to pro- 
duce a combination. 

For the compounds of copper and aluminium, the 
best kinds of refined copper are necessary. 

The atomic proportions appear to range between 10 
parts of aluminium and 90 of copper. 

When an ingot of aluminium is introduced into the 
middle of a bath of molten copper, the latter is im- 
mediately cooled off, and becomes hard. It is only 
after a vigorous and continuous stirring that the 
nearly coagulated mass becomes fluid again, and the 
combination takes place. According to Mr. Morin, 



ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 141 

the director of the manufactory of Nanterre, very 
homogeneous alloys are obtained with the proportions 
of 5, 7|, and 10 per cent, of aluminium; whilst with 
the proportions of 6, 7, or 8 per cent, there is no 
thorough mixture or combination. The alloys with 
5 and 10 per cent, of aluminium are both of a golden- 
yellow color, whereas that with 7J per cent, gives a 
metal having a greenish tint, perfectly different from 
that of the two other compounds. We may be allowed 
to suppose that, in such cases, there is some peculiar 
process of handicraft which cannot be seen by the 
observer ; and that the above indications would require 
to be confirmed by other experiments. 

The direct mixture, by first fusion, of 10 parts of 
aluminium and 90 of copper, gives a brittle metal, 
which increases in strength and tenacity only after 
several successive fusions. At each operation, a little 
aluminium is lost. 

However, when the compound has been remelted 
three or four times, the proportion of aluminium does 
not seem to change, and the alloy may be remelted 
several times without alteration. These fusions are 
effected in crucibles. The aluminium bronze, when 
melted several times, is homogeneous, and possesses 
sufficient expansion to fill the remotest parts of the 
moulds. It may be cast into very thin and sharp 
objects, nearly as well as good statuary bronze. On 
the other hand, when the pieces are bulky, this alu- 
minium bronze is subject to shrinkage, and requires 
numerous runners and a heavy feeding head {dead 
head). 

Aluminium bronze may be forged at a brown-red 
heat, and hammered until cooled oft without present- 
ing any flaw or cracks. This alloy, the same as cop- 
per, is rendered milder and more ductile by being 
plunged into cold water when hot. 

The specific gravities of the alloys of copper and 



142 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

aluminium are sensibly proportional to the amount of 
aluminium. According to Messrs. Bell Brothers, of 
Newcastle, the specific gravities of compounds of copper 
and aluminium are : — 



• an alloy of 3 per cent, of aluminium 


, 


. 


8.691 


n a 4 a u u 


, 


. 


8.621 


« u 5 u a (( 


. 


. 


8.369 


it u 20 " " " 


. 


. 


7.689 



From the experiments made by Colonel Strange, 
and stated in the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical 
Society of London, it results that : — ■ 

The resistance to traction of aluminium bronze is 
5328 kilogrammes per square centimetre; whereas 
that of the ordinary ordnance metal (bronze) of Wool- 
wich is 2552 kilogrammes. 

The resistance to compression is feeble ; the metal 
becomes flattened under the charge, the same as with 
soft metals. 

The malleability is great, although no figures ac- 
company the experiments. Aluminium bronze may 
be forged with great facility. From a dark red heat 
up to a limit near its point of fusion, this metal behaves 
perfectly well under the hammer. 

The absolute rigidity was not determined. Mr. 
Strange's experiments were confined to the relative 
rigidity of brass, ordinary bronze, and aluminium 
bronze ; and the results were that aluminium bronze 
was about forty times as rigid as brass, and three times 
as much so as ordinary bronze. 

Other experiments have shown that aluminium 
bronze does not expand or contract so much as ordi- 
nary bronze, and does so, much less than brass. That 
under the tool aluminium bronze produces long and 
resisting chips, does not clog the file, &o. That, in the 
melted state, this metal expands very much, and is fit 
for the sharpest castings ; but that, as it cools oft* 



ALLOYS RARELY USED IX THE ARTS. 143 

rapidly, it is subject to shrinkage, and hence to cracks. 
At last, that although not being entirely inoxidable, it 
is, however, not so easily tarnished by contact with the 
air as polished brass, bronze, iron, steel, &c. 

At all events, notwithstanding its imperfectly ob- 
served qualities, it is certain that aluminium bronze has 
not yet found a large place in the arts. The price of 
this alloy, which ranges from 15 to 50 francs (S3 to 
S10) per kilogramme (2.20 pounds), whether in the raw 
state or more or less worked, and we do not speak of 
artistic works, is certainly an impediment to its com- 
mon use. If we add that when polished its color is 
not very pleasing, and does not, whether by its tint or 
lustre, resemble those of the precious metals; that its 
unalterability is not entirely demonstrated ; we will 
understand the slowness of the progress of aluminium 
bronze in public favor. 

The articles actually manufactured from aluminium 
bronze are generally copies of goldsmith's ware. 
Spoons, forks, dessert-knives, supports for decanters, 
coffee-pots, &c, are made with the alloy holding the 
maximum of aluminium. Candlesticks, small jewelry 
ware, broaches, buckles, the accessory parts for surgical 
or mathematical instruments, etc., are made with an 
alloy of a lower grade. 

In fact, the tendency is to substitute these alloys for 
many gilt, silvered, or plated articles, when on account 
of their peculiar properties they may present the same 
advantages of duration at nearly the same cost. 



IT. 

ALLOYS OF THE METALS RARELY OR NEVER 
USED IX THE ARTS. 

We shall include in this chapter the mfxtures, 
rather than alloys, formed between themselves or with 



144: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the preceding metals, by certain metals which chemis- 
try classes among metalloids,* rather than among 
metals proper. 

Most of the elementary bodies which we now have to 
examine are rare, little known, scarcely or never used, 
and belong more to science than to the arts. Several 
of them have not been obtained in the metallic state; 
and we believe that under such conditions their combi- 
nations are more interesting from a scientific point of 
view than adapted to use in the arts; more for the 
laboratory than for the foundry ; and therefore not 
within the limits of this work. 

This chapter shall be short, and limited to concise 
indications relating to alloys. 

However, brief as are the indications we have to 
give concerning the more or less useful combinations 
of the following metals: — 

Manganese, 

Chromium, 

Cobalt, 

Cadmium, 

Titanium, 

Uranium, 

Tungsten or wolfram, 

Molybdenum, 

Osmium, 

Iridium, 

Palladium, 

Rhodium, 

Tellurium, 

Silicon or silicium, 

Potassium, 

Sodium — 

* The term Metalloid is applied in chemistry to those elementary- 
bodies which, combined with oxygen or hydrogen, may act as acids, 
and whose oxides do not play the part of bases. Silicium is the 
only metalloid among the metals to be examined in this chapter. — 
2\ans. 



MANGANESE. 145 

we shall precede them by a rapid sketch of the 
history and characteristics of these metals. We shall 
not mention any of those which are scarcely known 
hy chemists themselves. 

Manganese. 

Discovered in the metallic state, in 1774, by Scheele 
and Gahn. Specific gravity about 7.05. Fascicular 
and crystalline fracture, of a grayish-white color, re- 
sembling that of white pig-iron. Less fusible than 
cast iron. Without smell or savor. Brittle and dif- 
ficult to file. According to Mr. Regnault, however, it 
possesses a certain ductility and malleability which 
would approach that of iron, if it could be obtained 
in a pure state. 

In order to preserve manganese, it must be kept 
from contact with the air. This metal has a great ten- 
dency to become oxidized, and its surface is rapidly 
covered with a dark brown oxide as soon as it is ex- 
posed to a damp atmosphere. 

Manganese, according to Bergmann, unites with cop- 
per and gives a very malleable alloy, of red color, 
which after some time turns to a greenish-brown. 

According to Berthier, alloys of copper and manga- 
nese are ductile, and each metal possesses a great affi- 
nity for the other. 

The same savant has tried the following alloys, made 
by heating the mixture in a brasqued crucible, and 
obtained in the shape of metallic buttons. 

Protoxide of manganese 
Metallic copper . 
Cuarcoal ..... 
Borax 

37.10 42.56 26.74 36.66 

Alloy No. 1 gave a compact metal of a grayish- 
"13 



1 


2 


3 


4 


4.46 


8.92 


8.92 


17.84 


51.64 


31.64 


15.82 


15.82 


0.50 


1.00 


1.00 


2.00 


0.50 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 



146 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

white color, shaded with red, perfectly ductile, very 
tenacious, and with a granular and scaly fracture. The 
proportion of manganese was about 10 per cent. 

Allov No. 2 was platinum-gray, ductile, tenacious, 
and susceptible of a fine polish. 

Alloy No. 3 gave similar results to the preceding 
ones, although its composition after fusion was 2' atoms 
of copper to 1 of manganese. The composition of alloy 
No. 2 was 4 atoms of copper to 1 of manganese. 

Alloy No. 4 gave a well-melted metal, iron-gray, 
ductile, very tenacious, susceptible of acquiring a very 
fine polish, and with a scaly and at the same time 
fibrous fracture. This metal, the composition of which 
was about 4 atoms of copper to 3 of manganese, 
exhaled a smell of hydrogen when breathed upon. 

The composition of these alloys shows a great affi- 
nity between the two metals; because, without the 
presence of the copper the proportion of reduced man- 
ganese would not have been so considerable. 

Gold, like copper, may be alloyed with manganese. 
This latter metal, melted with 33 per cent, of gold, 
forms a hard alloy of a light gray color, with little 
ductility, and having a granular fracture. With only 
10 per cent, of gold the alloy becomes entirely ductile, 
finely granular, and of a light gray. 

The alloy composed of 12 per cent, of manganese 
and 88 per cent, of gold is a pale yellowish-gray, w r ith 
a fine lustre, similar to that of polished steel. This 
alloy, which is less fusible than gold, is very hard and 
slightly ductile. Its fracture presents a spongy ap- 
pearance, the grains are coarse, and the color is a red- 
dish-gray. It is not altered by contact with the air. 
According to M. Dumas, the above proportion of 
manganese is the maximum which can be employed 
without debasing the gold too much. 

Manganese is often found combined with certain 
kinds of pig-iron. But these forced combinations are 



MANGANESE. 147 

to be found in white, lamellar, and very brittle pig- 
iron, and there seems to be no advantage in direct 
alloys of iron with manganese. 

It appears, however, that the presence of manganese 
in pig-iron is valuable for the manufacture of steel. 
In this respect it would be interesting to study more 
thoroughly than has been done what is the action 
of manganese on pig-iron. The main point would be 
to obtain a combination of manganese with pure pig- 
iron — that is, deprived of such other substances as are 
susceptible of altering its qualities. Several kinds of 
pig-iron, holding manganese, have been found by 
analysis to contain also copper, zinc, silica, alumina, 
phosphorus, &c. Most of these substances being pre- 
judicial to pig-iron, whether for casting or the manu- 
facture of iron and steel, it is certain that all of the 
bad effects are not attributable to manganese. 

Berthier has indicated an alloy of — 

Copper . . . . . . . . 0.661 

Tungsten 0.216 

Iron . . 0.091 

Manganese 0.031 

0.999 

which is semi-ductile, very hard, susceptible of a fine 
polish, and nearly as red as pure copper. This skilful 
chemist has thought that, by increasing the proportion 
of copper, the alloy would become entirely malleable. 
as fine as copper, harder, and a great deal less fusible. 

This would be a curious experiment to make, unless 
it has already been done. But, as regards alloys, we 
must be prepared for unforeseen results; and changes 
in the proportions will not always be accompanied by 
corresponding transformations in the nature of the 
alloys, such as would have been presupposed from the 
composition of the primitive alloy. 

From what we know, no other experiments on 



148 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloys of manganese have been made. At least, none 
have been published. 

Chromium. 

Discovered by Vauquelin, in 1797. Specific gravity 
= 5.9. Very hard and brittle. Scratches glass, and 
is very slightly fusible. Its color resembles that of 
tin, and, after polishing, acquires a fine metallic lustre. 

Chromium, in the natural state, is found combined 
with iron and lead, forming chrome iron, and chro- 
mate of lead or croco'ide. It is difficult to obtain in an 
entirely metallic state ; by the known processes, it is 
produced as an agglutinated grayish mass, or a dark 
gray powder. In either case, it is not completely pure. 
Chromium is not very oxidizable by contact with the 
air, at the ordinary temperature; but, at a red heat, 
and with that contact, it becomes incandescent by the 
absorption df oxygen, and is changed into the green 
oxide of chromium. 

The chemical combinations of chromium are re- 
markable for their colors. 

Experimenters appear to have studied only the com- 
binations of chromium with iron and steel. From 
their researches it has been ascertained that chromium 
has a powerful affinity for iron, and may be alloyed 
with this metal in all proportions. 

According to Berthier, if we submit to a powerful 
heat, in a brasqued crucible, a mixture of the oxides 
of chromium and iron, they are perfectly reduced, and 
we may obtain, in all proportions, intimate and homo- 
geneous combinations of the two metals. 

These alloys are generally hard, brittle, crystalline, 
grayish-white, and, when polished, more lustrous than 
iron. With an increase in the proportion of chromium, 
they become proportionally more refractory, less mag- 
netic, and more indifferent to the action of acids. 



CHROMIUM. 149 



The alloy made of- 



Iron 68.60 

Chromium 31.40 



100.00 



has a fibrous structure, a white color nearly like that 
of silver, and is very brittle and difficult to file. 

The alloys of chromium and iron have not, as yet, 
been used on a very large scale in the arts. In case 
they should, it would be better, according to Berthier, 
to substitute, in the mixtures, the chrome ore (chrome 
iron) for the pure oxide of chromium. The chrome 
ores are not scarce, and a large deposit has been found 
in the department of Var (France). 

In his experiments on the combinations of chromium 
with iron and steel, Berthier has employed the alloys 
of chromium and iron for introducing the former 
metal into cast steel. 

The alloys of steel and chromium made by that pro- 
cess, and holding from 1 to 2 per cent, of chromium, 
gave a metal which, like wootz or Indian steel, could be 
polished, and then damaskeened by means of diluted 
sulphuric acid. The damaskeened pattern (the white 
portions of which were chromium, upon which diluted 
acid has no action) presented variegated veins, with a 
brilliant silver lustre, and similar to those obtained in 
the alloy of silver with steel. 

Several manufacturers of arms in Belgium have, by 
similar processes, tried the alloys of steel and chro- 
mium for their damaskeened blades. We believe that 
these alloys are in actual use, but that steel of cemen- 
tation has been substituted for cast steel, which was 
employed in the experiments. 

Other trials made by Berthier on alloys of chromium 
and copper, chromium and tin, do not appear to have 
been applied in the arts. We shall detail them as 
subjects of information, reminding our readers that 

13* 



150 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

among these brief data they may find a basis for new- 
studies, which, if made in a practical manner, may pos- 
sibly lead to unforeseen results. 

According to Berthier, the alloy made of — 

Copper 0.912 

Chromium 0.088 



i.000 



is malleable and harder than copper. It has the same 
color as the latter metal, and will acquire a fine polish. 
The alloy composed of — 

Tin 0.808 

Chromium 0.192 



1.000 



is grayish-white, soft, semi-ductile, harder than tin, 
but cannot be laminated. Its fracture is granular, and 
iron-gray. 

Cobalt 

Was discovered by Brandt in 1733. Specific gravity 
8.6. Fracture, a reddish-gray ; when polished, its color 
is of a steel-gray, as magnetic as iron, more fusible, 
and less ductile. It takes a fine polish. Its tenacity 
is remarkable, and, according to M. Eegnault, nearly 
double that of iron. 

In the natural state, cobalt is found combined prin- 
cipally with sulphur and arsenic, under the names of 
arsenical cobalt or smaltine, and gray cobalt or cobal- 
tine. 

Pure cobalt, or its alloys, have no industrial uses. 
Its oxide is employed for the manufacture of azure 
blues, Thenard blue, &c, for the enamels of decorators 
on china and glass ware. The savans of this period 
have paid considerable attention to the chemical com- 
binations of this metal, which appear to have been em- 
ployed, from the earliest ages, by the Egyptians, Greeks, 
and Komans, for their glasses and blue enamels. 



COBALT. 151 

Cobalt is not so much affected by dampness as iron. 
However, by the permanent action of damp air, it be- 
comes covered with a pellicle of a fine black oxide. 
Heated in the air, it is transformed into oxide. 

Berthier has tried an alloy made of — 

Copper ........ 68.2 

Cobalt 31.8 



100.0 

the composition of which was ascertained after fusion. 
This alloy was compact, ductile, tenacious, of a white 
slightly tinged with red, strongly magnetic, and sus- 
ceptible of a fine polish. 
An alloy of — 

Tin . 80 

Cobalt 20 

100 

was very fusible, easily cut and hammered, although 
brittle, and with a rugged and crystalline fracture. 

These laboratory experiments, made in brasqued 
crucibles, and investigated upon buttons weighing no 
more than 15 to 20 grammes, may give some indica- 
tions of the mode of operation, but do not actually pre- 
sent any practical result of interest in the arts. 

Indeed, what is to be expected from such alloys, 
which, as all those we are now examining, are at present 
incapable of furnishing economical compounds? Only 
unforeseen results, which may be applied to the arts, 
in cases where the alloys and metals now in use do not 
possess the qualities desired. Then, a few experiments, 
made in the manner of Berthier, will be sufficient to 
show the investigator if he is moving in the right di- 
rection. 

Cobalt has also been tried with iron. Berthier says 
that such alloys possess the same qualities as pure iron, 
and are of a whiter color. 



152 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Cadmium. 

Discovered by Stromeyer and Hermann in Germany, 
about the same time, in 1818. Its color is white, with 
a tinge greener than that of tin. Possesses as much 
lustre as tin. Fracture, fibrous and crystallizing in 
regular octahedrons. Specific gravity, 8.6. Fusible 
below a red heat, and volatilizes at about 400° C. 
Malleable, ductile, somewhat harder than tin, and may 
be laminated and drawn out. 

Cadmium is found in the natural state, combined 
with sulphur and zinc in several varieties of calamine 
and blende. It is not sensibly oxidized at the ordi- 
nary temperature, but, when heated to redness, it vola- 
tilizes sooner than zinc, and its vapors burn with bril- 
liancy. Distilled in a retort, pure cadmium may be 
obtained in the shape of regular and crystalline drops. 

The great facility with which cadmium volatilizes 
has been the serious drawback to the formation of its 
alloys and their study. 

Cadmium is very easily dissolved in mercury, even 
at the ordinary temperature. The amalgam is of a 
very fine silver-white, and its texture is granular and 
crystalline. It melts at 75° C, and when cooled oft' is 
hard and very brittle. Its specific gravity is above 
that of mercury. 

Titanium. 

Its oxides appear to have been studied from 1790 to 
1795 by Gregor and Klaproth. Since 1821, its com- 
binations have been investigated by the chemist Rose. 

Combined with various substances, especially with 
iron and oxygen, carbon and nitrogen, titanium is one 
of the most refractory of metals. Reduced to the metal- 
lic state, it forms a black and amorphous powder, simi- 



URANIUM. lo3 

lar to that of iron reduced by hydrogen at a low tem- 
perature. 

Heated in contact with the air. titanium burns and 
produces a vivid scintillation: the incandescence is 
sudden, and the metal is projected out of the crucible, 
when it is heated in contact with the oxides of lead or 
copper". 

We must acknowledge that the black powder of re- 
duced titanium is far from presenting a characteristic 
metallic appearance. Hence a great difficulty of as- 
similation, which has prevented experimenters from 
trying the alloys of titanium. The only experiments 
known were based on the alloys of this metal with iron, 
and the results have been negative. Karsten, in his 
work on the metallurgy of iron, "mentions an attempt 
to combine titanium with steel ; and although the pro- 
portion of titanium was only 1 per cent., the alloj 7 did 
not take place, and the titanium was found irregularly 
scattered throughout the mass. 



- 



Uranium 

Was isolated from the oxide known under that name, 
by M. Peligot, in 1642. Metallic uranium, whether in 
a black powder or aggregated in the shape of small 

laminae, presents a lustre similar to that of silver. In 
the latter case, it appears to possess a certain mal- 
leability. 

This metal, heated to a temperature above 200' C. 
in presence of the air, burns with much brilliancy, and 
is transformed into a dark green oxide. At the ordi- 
nary temperature it does not decompose water, and i3 
not altered by the contact of the air. 

TTith acids, the protoxide of uranium, UO. produces 
green salts ; the sesquioxide, U 2 Q 3 , gives yellow salts. 
The latter oxide is employed for imparting to gl 
ware a yellow shade with a green tinge, 



154 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

It has not been possible, up to the present time, to 
combine uranium with the other metals. This is most 
likely due to its imperfect metallic state, which, like 
that of titanium and certain other metals obtained in 
the form of powder, is not adapted to the production 
of alloys. 

Tungsten 

Was isolated from wolfram, in 1790, by the brothers 
d'Elhuyart. We obtain it, either as a black powder 
or a solid mass, rather coagulated than melted, which 
acquires under the file a certain metallic lustre, of a dull 
gray color. 

This metal is very expensive, and but slightly fusi- 
ble. Its specific gravity is considerable, and attains 
17.6. 

In the natural state, tungsten is combined with lime 
or lead, forming the scheelite or scheelitine ; and with iron 
and manganese in wolfram. 

During the last few years, the alloys of tungsten 
with cast iron, steel, and wrought iron have attracted 
a great deal of attention, in the hope that these metals 
would acquire new qualities of resistance and hardness. 
Mr. Leguen, major of artillery, has superintended all 
the experiments made in this direction, for improving 
the quality of the metals employed in the manufacture 
of ordnance, and other weapons. 

We do not think, whatever has been said, that these 
experiments, up to the present time, have given con- 
clusive results. We shall, however, relate here, for the 
instruction of our readers, the principal data of the 
report of Mr. Leguen to the minister of war. 

A small proportion of wolfram imparts to cast iron 
an extraordinary hardness and tenacity. The latter 
quality increases in a greater ratio than the former, as 
the proportion of wolfram also increases up to a certain 
limit. Therefore, it is important to vary the propor- 



rUNGSTEW. 155 

tion of wolfram accord ngtc : e future : the cast 

iron employed. 1 - .: ra may vary from | bo 

: -- :-. ■;: ;:■■■.'-' : ::. Toe , ::/.:. e rnr.'.oyei :n : -. 
-:; eriments -_: Mr. Leguen was extracted from the 
le -. : Pn r-les-Vignes neai Saint Leonard, in the 
Haute Vienne. Il is the only mine ;:' this kind kn 
in France. The wolfram imbedded in a "cry hard 
_ igae of c ; artz ; a a t ; 1 1 " per cent, of tung- 

sten the remainder being iron, manganese and oxygen. 

Mr. Leguen infers from this som asition that tung- 
sten, being in a pi -. : ::: c i al least three times that . : 
the thertwc metals together will perform the princ 
part in the mc lifications imparted to cast iron by this 
He exj a \ e m we I 1 1 the small propor- 
tion ;: mangs lese introduced in:; the ices not 

^ act upon it : that the n of iron a 

*her efiect than &c increase :he c : ..: . :ne ; •: r. 
and that, the:r fore the incres se in hardness and resLst- 

je is loe be tungsten alone. 

H we examine the question by the tight of the 
experiments :: Mr. Sfa I ig in I ..' which : 

: -. '■■• -.".:.: :ne tenaciry :: . "^ iron = con.- V: \ r 
increased by the ad tion of wrought iron if we 
state that many persons believe tfa a K m : g d e se 
iron imparts to :: greater resistance — we may well 
have some doubt whether tungsten alone, as Mr. Le- 
guen says is the true cause of the increase of resistance 
of cast iron, with which wolfram has been alloyed. 

We have ourselves, with the prepared and fritted 
wolfram aent be us by the owner of the mine at P 
e ; ":^:- m>ie :are:V. cz^erinoon:= ;n :_^ introo::- 
tion of wolfram into cast iron : and these experiments 
repeated several times gave us samples, which being 
gave results sometimes favorable, sometimes un- 
rable to the action of wolfram. The figures 
obtained by these trials exhibited such slight differen 
that it would be as proper to suppose these differen . 



156 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

due to possible variations in the nature of the cast 
iron, from one smelting to another, as to the presence 
or absence of wolfram. 

It is well known that metals in general, and pig- 
iron especially, may widely differ in their resistance, 
even when they have been uniformly mixed, melted, 
cooled, &c. We have also demonstrated in another 
work, that four railroad chairs, cast at the same time 
in the same mould, presented in certain cases differ- 
ences quite considerable in their resistance. Therefore, 
we may infer, a fortiori, that these differences will 
take place if trial bars are cast at different times, at 
variable temperatures, and although the whole opera- 
tion appears to be conducted in the ordinary regular 
manner, with the same qualities and proportions of 
metal for the mixtures. 

Therefore, we should consider it quite natural that 
results from certain trials have caused wolfram to be 
regarded as possessing the qualities necessary for con- 
siderably increasing the resistance of cast iron. 

Certain bars, tried by the skilful directors of the 
Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, have indicated that 
wolfram improved cast iron, but it was not ascertained 
whether the bars with wolfram, and those without, had 
been cast on the same day ; or, notwithstanding the 
precautions taken to operate in exactly the same con- 
ditions, if bars of cast iron without wolfram, and cast 
at different times, would not have presented the same 
differences. 

It will be sufficient, in order to a better understand- 
ing, to state the results of several experiments made 
by ourselves, at the Marquise iron-works, in 1862.* 



* The results are shown by figures indicating the relative resist- 
ance. In the trials hy shock, the square bars had their sides 
equal to 4 centimetres, and were put upon edged supports, 16 cen- 



TUNGSTEN. 



157 



A. Gray cast iron, from Marquise, and without any 
admixture. Six bars tried by shock : — 



1st bar, 


breaks at 


, 


0.65 metre of fall 


2d " 


a 


" 


„ 


0.75 


<( u 


3d " 


(< 


« 


. 


0.70 


a a 


4th " 


« 


tc 


, 


0.80 


a a 


5th " 


«< 


a 


. 


0.85 


« « 


6th " 


« 


tt 


. 


0.90 


u a 



Average 



0.775 



B. The same cast iron, with J per cent, of wolfram. 
Six bars tried by shock : — 



1st bar, 


breaks at 


. 


. 


0.55 metre of fall 


2d " 


(i 


a 


• 


9 


0.55 


u a 


3d « 


a 


a 


, 


, , 


0.60 


a it 


4th " 


<< 


it 


„ 


, 


0.65 


a it 


5th " 


« 


it 


, 


. 


0.75 


it it 


6th « 


« 


tt 


• 


. 


0.85 


tt tt 



Average 



0.658 



C. The same cast iron, with 1 per cent, of wolfram. 
Six bars tried by shock :— - 



1st bar, 


breaks at 


. 


0.75 metre of fall 


2d " 


<< 


a 


. 


0.80 


n tt 


3d « 


« 


it 


9 


0.90 


tt a 


4th « 


<« 


tt 


, „ 


0.90 


it a 


5th " 


« 


<< 


. 


0.90 


it li 


6th « 


(« 


it 


. 


0.95 


it tt 



Average . . 0.866 

D. The same cast iron, with 8 per cent, of iron turn- 
ing scraps, and without wolfram. Six bars tried by 
shock : — 



timetres distant from centre to centre. The shock was given by 
a ball weighing 12 kilogrammes. 

In the trials by flexion, the numbers indicate the breaking strain 
of square bars (side = 25 millimetres), put upon edged supports 
50 centimetres distant from centre to centre. 

14 



158 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



1st bar, breaks at . . . 0.80 metre of fall. 


2d " " 


" ... 0.80 


a 


<< 


3d " " 


" ... 0.80 


(( 


<< 


4th " 


" . . . . 0.85 


<( 


« 


5th " " 


" ... 0.85 


« 


a 


6th " " 


" . 0.85 
Average . . 0.825 


u 


u 


A'. Kepetition of the experiment A. 


Six bars tried 


r shock :— 








1st bar, breaks at . . . 0.65 metre of fall. 


2d " " 


" ... 0.65 


« 


a 


3d " • " 


" ... 0.70 


<( 


a 


4th " « 


" ... 0.70 


it 


« 


5th " " 


" ... 0.70 


u 


it 


6th " " 


" ... 0.75 


u 


u 



Average 



0.692 



B'. Kepetition of the experiment B. Six bars tried 
by shock : — 



1st bar, 


breaks at 


. 


0.70 metre of fall 


2d " 


« 


« 


. , 


0.70 


a a 


3d " 


« 


a 


. 


0.70 


n « 


4th " 


(< 


n 


. 


0.75 


u u 


5th " 


» 


a 


■ • 


0.75 


U (( 


6th " 


« 


a 


■ 


0.75 


a a 



Average 



0.725 



E. Gray cast iron of Marquise, the same which had 
been employed in the previous experiments. Six bars 
tried by flexion : — 



1st bar, breaks by a strain of 


2900 kilogrammes 


2d " 


2900 " 


3d " " " " 


3000 " 


4th " " " " 


3000 " 


5th " « « " 


3300 


6th " « " " 


3300 



Average 



3066 



TUNGSTEN. 



159 



F. The same cast iron, with \ per cent, of wolfram. 
Six bars tried by flexion : — 



1st bar, breaks 


by a 


strain of 


2700 kilogrammes. 


2d " 


(< 


a 


« 


3000 


(< 


3d " 


<( 


a 


u 


3000 


« 


4th " 


(i 


a 


n 


3000 


« 


5th " 


« 


a 


a 


3000 


<( 


6th " 


it 


tt 


u 


3100 


u 



Average 



2966 



G. The same cast iron, with 1 per cent, of wolfram. 
Six bars tried by flexion : — 



1st bar, 


breaks 


by a 


strain of 


2600 


kilog 


rammes. 


2d " 


« 


a 


« 


2700 




« 


3d " 


u 


a 


u 


2700 




« 


4th " 


it 


a 


a 


2900 




a 


5th " 


a 


u 


a 


3100 




a 


6th " 


tt 


u 


u 


3100 




tt 



Average » 2850 

H. The same cast iron, with 8 per cent, of iron turn- 
ings. Six bars tried by flexion : — 



1st bar, 


breaks by 


a strain of 


2700 


kilogrammes. 


2d " 


« 


< tt 


2700 


a 


3d " 


tt 


t a 


2700 


a 


4th " 


a 


i a 


2900 


a 


5th " 


it 


it a 


2900 


a 


6th " 


n 


t a 


3100 


a 



Average . 2833 

The examination of these results shows that cast 
iron without wolfram, and cast iron with wolfram, 
give, excepting the results of the trials B, figures suf- 
ficiently near to suppose that the differences are due 
to the anomalies presented by the same cast iron in 
similar experiments. The influence of wolfram is not 
sufficiently demonstrated, even in the experiments C, 
where it is the most perceptible, to be admitted with- 
out dispute. Moreover, the trials D, where iron had 



160 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

been added to cast iron, gave results so near those of 
C, that we cannot say whether it is the iron or the 
wolfram which has increased the resistance of the 
metal. 

On the other hand ; the trials A r and B r , repeated 
under exactly the same conditions as those of A and 
B, come into direct opposition to the former trials, and 
show that wolfram has a beneficial influence, while in 
the former cases it was rather hurtful. 

It may be objected that the preparation of the alloys 
has possibly been defective. Indeed, it is difficult to 
meit wolfram, which, when pure, is nearly infusible. 

The nature of the elements of cast iron appears to 
facilitate its fusion ; nevertheless, the alloy is difficult, 
on account of the great specific gravity of tungsten. 
But we are certain that we took all the necessary pre- 
cautions to obtain the mixture, whether operating in a 
crucible or in a cupola. 

The experiments of Mr. Leguen were conducted in 
a similar manner, as regards the fusion in crucibles. 
The cast iron and the wolfram were charged at the 
same time in the red-hot crucibles, and the tempera- 
ture was raised afterwards. The trials were, like ours, 
made upon square bars (side = 0.04 metre), first with 
cast iron only, and then with the same metal combined 
with 1, 1J, 2, and 2 J per cent, of wolfram. The re- 
sult of the trials has shown an increase of tenacity 
by each addition of wolfram, but not in proportion 
to the quantities employed. However, the ratio of 
increase of tenacity appears to have been regular up 
to 2 J per cent, of wolfram. 

Mr. Leguen infers from his experiments that as 
cast iron may have its tenacity increased one-third by 
allo}nng with wolfram, all ordnance should be trans- 
formed on these new bases. This conclusion goes too 
far, the more so as Mr. Leguen recognizes himself 



TUNGSTEN". 161 

that the trials have been insufficient, and should be 
repeated in various ways. 

From cast iron Mr. Leguen passes to steel, which, 
according to the same authority, is even a great deal 
more improved by wolfram. Steel combined with 
wolfram ought to acquire similar qualities to those of 
steel combined with pure tungsten, or with molybde- 
num, chromium, titanium, and alumina, which sub- 
stances, according to certain experimenters, may form 
five damaskeened compounds. According to Mr. Le- 
guen, careful experiments on a practical scale have 
been attempted in order to impart, by means of wol- 
fram, various degrees of hardness and tenacity to the 
steel intended for the manufacture of files, cutting in- 
struments, weapons, &c. But, at the present day, we 
cannot say that anything in that line has been intro- 
duced into the art. On the contrary, we know that an 
important steel- works, which had great faith in the 
alloys of wolfram and steel, has abandoned the idea, 
after a few experiments, which demonstrated the diffi- 
culty of arriving at certain and unfailing results. 

Consequently, it seems better to wait before forming 
an opinion on the influence of wolfram upon steel or 
cast iron. Wootz, the Damascus steel of the East, and 
the other compounds where steel appears with peculiar 
properties, are rather natural products than alloys pro- 
per, and, therefore, cannot well be compared with the 
alloys which we are studying. 

Mr. Leguen also considers the alloys of wolfram 
with copper and tin, in order to improve the bronze 
for ordnance. These alloys are exceedingly difficult 
to obtain, on account of the differences in fusibility 
and specific gravity of wolfram, and of the component 
metals of bronze. The alloy of wolfram and copper 
is very difficult, and there, as with cast iron, nothing 
demonstrates that wolfram increases the hardness or 
tenacity of copper. Our own experiments gave no 

14* 



162 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

useful data, and too often, after running out the copper 
or the brass, we found the wolfram in a pulverulent 
state, uncombined with the copper and tin, notwith- 
standing all the precautions taken by the founder for 
rapidly melting, stirring, and running out. 

To sum up, we will say that in our opinion, and 
that of many of the chemists who have studied the 
action of wolfram, if tungsten could be separated from 
wolfram in an economical way, it might give more 
important and more conclusive alloys* 

Molybdenum. 

Obtained by Scheele in 1778, and isolated afterwards 
by Hielm. Specific gravity, 8.6. Color, a dead white, 
susceptible of a fine polish. Is found in the natural 
state combined with sulphur or lead. It is obtained 
as a grayish powder, which acquires a metallic lustre 
by being burnished, and sometimes in the shape of 
small melted masses which resemble unpolished silver. 

Molybdenum is easily oxidized. Heated in the 
presence of the air, it becomes incandescent, and is 
transformed into molybdic acid. 

Molybdenum is without application in the arts. Its 
combinations with tin have been experimented upon, 
and Berthier says that the alloy of: — 

Tin . . . . . . . . 83 

Molybdenum . . . . . . 7 (or 17?) 

is as white, ductile, and tenacious as tin, and may be 
laminated to thin sheets. Muriatic acid dissolves the 
tin of the alloy, and leaves molybdenum in the metallic 
state. 

* Mr. C. W. Siemens says that tungsten has the remarkable effect 
upon steel of increasing its power to retain magnetism when hard- 
ened. A horseshoe magnet of tungsten steel has been made 
which supports twenty times its weight. — Trans. 



IRIDIUM. 163 

An alloy of molybdenum with lead whitens the 
color of lead,- if the proportion of molybdenum is not 
over a twentieth ; above that, lead becomes harder and 
darker. Molybdenum unites with certain other metals 
only in definite proportions, but these alloys present 
nothing of interest in the arts. 

Osmium. 

Discovered in 1803, by Tennant, in the ores of pla- 
tinum; it is generally combined with iridium and ruthe- 
nium. Specific gravity, 10. Color, a metallic gray, 
resembling that of platinum. This metal presents suf- 
ficient malleability to be obtained in the shape of 
aggregated plates, which, however, are easily pulver- 
ized by percussion. 

It is oxidized by exposure to a damp atmosphere ; 
but, when heated at a low temperature in presence of 
oxygen gas, it takes fire and is transformed into osmic 
acid, which volatilizes. 

From its chemical properties, Mr. Eegnault thinks 
that osmium should be classified among the metalloids. 

Osmium has been tried in an alloy with steel for 
improving cutting instruments. It is even said that 
certain steel manufacturers of Sheffield have largely- 
used this metal for their products. 

Iridium. 

A gray metal found, like the preceding one, in cer- 
tain ores of platinum. Discovered in 1803 by Ten- 
nant and Collet-Descotils, in the black residuum from 
the treatment of platinum ore with aqua regia. Specific 
gravity, 15.8. 

Iridium is obtained in the shape of a spongy mass, 
which acquires a metallic lustre by being burnished. 
It may also be transformed into a very hard and com- 



164 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

pact mass, which is susceptible of being polished, if 
the pulverulent metal is wetted, strongly compressed, 
and then calcined. The specific gravity given above 
is that of this aggregated and porous metal. Brought 
to a red heat with potassa or nitre, iridium becomes 
oxidized and is transformed into iridiate of potassa. 

Of course, like those metals which seem to be a uni- 
versal panacea in developing and improving the quali- 
ties of steel, iridium has been combined with that 
metal, especially by English experimenters. 

Messrs. Stodart and Faraday, who have tried iri- 
dium on a large scale, claim that this metal produces 
one of the best combinations with steel, and that the 
most advantageous proportion for improving the steel 
for cutting instruments is about 1 per cent, of iridium. 

According to Berthier, an alloy of: — 

Lead 89 

Iridium . 11 

100 

is whiter than lead, which is rendered harder and 
more malleable, without any loss of tenacity. 

When platinum and iridium can be melted together, 
which is quite difficult, on account of the refractory 
nature of the two metals, the resulting alloys are 
harder than pure platinum and not so easily altered 
by the action of the fire and reagents. They are, 
therefore, useful for the fabrication of certain chemical 
apparatus. We learn from the recent studies of 
several chemists, that platinum alloyed with one-tenth 
of iridium has more lustre, is more malleable than 
pure platinum, and may be hardened. Such an alloy 
might be useful for metallic mirrors. 

We have not seen any other important alloys of 
iridium, which metal appears to form, with most 
metals, mixtures rather than complete combinations. 



PALLADIUM. 165 



Palladium. 

Discovered by Wollaston, in 1803, in certain platinum 
ores; Specific gravity, 11.5. Unalterable by the air, 
this metal has a white lustre, slightly duller than that 
of silver. Yery malleable, and may be welded and 
forged at a white heat. Nearly infusible by the ordi- 
nary processes. It is not attacked by certain acids ; 
but hot nitric acid dissolves it readily. 

Metallic palladium is actually to be found in the 
trade, and is a secondary product of certain gold ores, 
which are a true combination of gold and palladium ; 
such is the auro-poudre (gold-powder) of Brazil. 

Palladium unites readily with gold, and the alloy is 
hard, ductile, and platinum-white, when the proportion 
of palladium is not too considerable. The fracture of 
this alloy is coarsely granular. 

One of the great graduated circles of the observa- 
tory of Paris appears to have been made of that alloy, 
which is dense, hard, and firm enough to receive the 
finest divisions. M. Regnault states somewhere that 
this circle is entirely made of palladium. Another 
author says that the alloy is made of silver and palla- 
dium.* 

We incline towards the latter alloy, which is easily 
made, is malleable, ductile, and possesses a fine color, 
grayer than silver, but whiter than platinum. An 
alloy of equal parts of palladium and silver has a spe- 
cific gravity, 11.29. 

An alloy of palladium with from 10 to 20 per cent, 
of silver is employed by dentists for filling teeth. 

The ternary alloy of palladium, silver, and gold can 
be made easily and in all proportions, according to 

* In Dana's mineralogy we find that, at the suggestion of Dr. 
Wollaston, an alloy of palladium — 1 part to gold 6 parts — was em- 
ployed by Troughton for the construction of the graduated part of 
the mural circle, at the Royal Observatory of Greenwich. — Trans. 



166 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Berthier. The compounds are ductile, but more dense 
and elastic than the binary alloys of palladium with 
silver or gold. 

From the preceding indications it seems that in 
every case palladium, by its white color, its disposi- 
tion to acquire a fine polish, its resistance to sulphur- 
ous fumes and to oxidation, may be successfully em- 
ployed by manufacturers of philosophical instruments. 

Palladium unites more or less easily with certain 
metals, such as zinc, tin, lead, and platinum. We 
possess no exact data on these various combinations. 
Lead, tin, and zinc appear to increase its fusibility, but 
the compounds remain gray, hard, and brittle. Mr. 
Fischer has found out that at the moment when the 
combination of palladium with these metals takes place, 
the alloy becomes phosphorescent in the crucible. 

An alloy of platinum and palladium is harder than 
platinum, but less ductile. With equal parts of these 
metals, the compound is gray, possesses nearly the 
hardness of wrought iron, and has a specific gravity 
of 15.14. 

Palladium may be united with steel, according to 
Mr. Herve, author of a work on alloys, from which 
we borrow a few citations, which we do not endorse, 
especially when we have not had an opportunity of 
verifying the results. 

The alloy of steel and palladium, with one-tenth of 
the latter metal, is considered by Messrs. Faraday and 
Stodart as one of the most useful combinations of 
steel for instruments which must cut smoothly. 

Ehodium. 

Like palladium, rhodium was discovered in platinum 
ores, by Wollaston, in 1803. Specific gravity, 10.6. 
Ehodium, so called on account of the pink color of the 
solution of its salts, is a gray metal, like platinum. 



RUTHENIUM. 167 

This metal is not oxidized by the air at the ordi- 
nary temperature, but when it is in a minute state of 
division it easily combines with oxygen at a red heat. 

Ehodium, like most of the metals of this chapter, is 
very scarce, expensive, and little known. 

According to Wollaston, rhodium is one of the nu- 
merous metals destined to improve the qualities of 
steel. A very small proportion of rhodium ought to 
render steel much harder and less easily oxidable by a 
damp atmosphere. 

Messrs. Stodart and Faraday, who made at Sheffield 
numerous experiments for improving steel, found out 
that the alloys of steel, holding from 1 to 2 per cent, 
■of rhodium, presented very great tenacity, united to 
such a hardness, that the cutting instruments made 
with these alloys could bear a tempering heat 30° Fahr. 
above that of the best Indian wootz, although the 
tempering point of the latter is 40° above that of the 
best English cast steel. 

A compound of equal parts of steel and rhodium 
gives, according to the same investigators, a fusible 
alloy which acquires a magnificent polish, is not tar- 
nished, and therefore very well adapted to the manu- 
facture of metallic mirrors. 

Ehodium is not very difficult to alloy with gold, and, 
if added in small proportion to the latter metal, will 
increase its hardness without altering its ductility. 

Ehodium has not, like platinum and palladium, the 
property of discoloring gold, therefore it might be used 
for combining with the latter metal, if rhodium itself 
were not too scarce and too expensive. 

EUTHENIUM. 

Discovered, like the preceding, in platinum ores, but 
especially in the osmide of iridium, which contains 



168 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

from 5 to 6 per cent, of it. Specific gravity, about 8.6. 
This metal, which bears a great resemblance to iridium, 
for which it has often been mistaken, is gray, infusible, 
does not aggregate by heat, and is scarcely acted upon 
by aqua regia. 

Rutherium is without actual utility, and its alloys 
are not known. 

Tellurium. 

Discovered in 1782, by Miiller, in a gold ore from 
Transylvania. It is a bluish-white metal, friable, and 
with a lamellar fracture. Specific gravity, 6.25. 

Tellurium, which possesses much analogy with sul- 
phur in its chemical combinations, is found in the min- 
eral kingdom combined with gold, silver, lead, and bis- 
muth. But it appears to possess the greatest affinity 
for gold ; and for a long time the Transylvania ore, 
from which Miiller obtained tellurium, was known by 
chemists under the names of paradoxical gold, proble- 
matical gold, and white gold. 

No important experiments on the alloys of tellurium 
with the other metals have been made. 

Potassium, Sodium. 

We might here examine the possible alloys of cer- 
tain alkaline and earthy metals. We shall, however, 
confine ourselves to potassium and sodium. 

Potassium, which was discovered in potassa by 
Davy, is a silver-white metal, with a white lustre, 
readily tarnished by contact with the air. Its specific 
gravity is less than that of water, and scarcely attains 
0.87. Fusible at 68° C, potassium becomes sufficiently 
soft to be kneaded between the fingers. 

It is nearly as inflammable as phosphorus, and may 
cause severe burns. In order to avoid its oxidation by 
the air, it is generally kept in naphtha. 

Sodium, also discovered by Davy, presents a great 



169 

analogy to potassium. However, it is more tenacious, 
less volatile, and less fusible. Its specific gravity is 
about 0.97, and its point of fusion 90° C. 

These two metals may be alloyed with the majority 
of the other metals. But these alloys, or rather com- 
pounds, present no great interest for the metallurgic 
arts ; and most of them are decomposed in the presence 
of air or water. 

The various metals we have just examined do not 
properly belong to the arts. 

In order to find real applications for them, it is 
necessary that they should be obtained at compara- 
tively cheap rates, and that they present the peculiar 
qualities of tenacity, malleability, and unalterability, 
so desirable in the arts. 

In the form of alloys, their uses would be facilitated 
by allowing the introduction into common metals of 
other more rare and expensive metals, which, but for 
the new qualities they impart, would remain unem- 
ployed. This is the reason why we have mentioned a 
subject where all remains to be studied and applied, as 
regards their use in the arts. 

Therefore, the present chapter is to be considered 
more as a recapitulation of data and experiments for 
directing the attention of the experimenter, than as a 
field already cultivated, in which the crops have only 
to be gathered. To sum up and to finish the compari- 
son, we open here a new field, where the seeds are few 
and scattered, and the culture of which is necessary, 
if we desire, from new and positive results, to arrive 
at a plentiful harvest. 



15 



170 



PART III. 

ALLOYS USED IN THE ABTS. 

In the last part of this work we shall recapitulate, 
by distinct industrial categories, the alloys known and 
adopted in practice. 

This classification will allow our readers to ascertain 
more rapidly, by seeking in the place which they oc- 
cupy in the arts, the usual metallic compound they 
require. 

By noticing the observations which accompany each 
kind of alloy, by examining the proportions admitted 
in practice, and by going back to the various chapters 
of the first part of this work, which show the charac- 
teristic properties of each metal, the possible affinities 
between various metals, the results obtained by chem- 
ists and experimenters, &c, the inquirer will certainly 
find the bases of new, interesting, or useful combina- 
tions. 

Among the many alloys employed in the arts, there 
are certainly several which we have omitted, or incom- 
pletely described, or, on the other hand, repeated. The 
difficulty in a work of this kind lies in the method of 
classification, and we hope that, considering the order 
and clearness we have endeavored to introduce into 
the whole, we shall be forgiven the few omissions or 
repetitions which have escaped our attention. 



BRONZES OF ART. 171 



BRONZES OF ART. 



The component elements of the statuary or artistic 
bronzes, intended to be gilt, are copper, tin, zinc, and 
lead combined in various proportions. 

We have already described the principal alloys 
formed by these metals, combined two by two, or by 
three, or by four. It will therefore be sufficient to 
sum up in this place the requisite qualities for statuary 
bronzes, and which are the combinations most gene- 
rally used in the arts. 

The principal conditions required for statuary 
bronzes, and which we have indicated in our work on 
foundries, are as follows :— 

A yellow-red color, without the yellow green or 
light yellow shades ; 

A grain adapted to the work of the file, chisel, and 
other chasing tools; 

Sufficient fusibility and fluidity to fill and reach all 
the parts of the mould, and reproduce the pattern in 
all its minutiae; 

An appropriate texture for receiving, without altera- 
tion, the mordants imparting the appearance of old 
bronze (pat'ine). 

The binary alloys of copper and tin, copper and 
zinc, rarely fulfil these conditions. The alloys of 
copper and tin are difficult to produce in one opera- 
tion, often crack by shrinkage, are not easily chased, 
and take with difficulty the artificial color of old 
bronze. 

The alloys of copper and zinc are wanting in hard- 
ness, and do not resist the action of the chisel suffi- 
ciently well. If the proportion of zinc be too consider- 
able, they are but slightly fluid, and do not give sharp 
If the copper is in too great excess, the sur- 



172 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

face is full of blow-holes. Moreover, the former are 
hard and brittle, while the latter are soft and without 
homogeneousness. 

The alloys of copper, tin, and zinc answer best to 
the wants of statuary, and range between the propor- 
tions of: — 

Copper 85, zinc 11, tin 5, 
Copper 65, zinc 32, tin 3, 

which we have already indicated. 

However, most of the bronze manufacturers add to 
these alloys a small proportion of lead, which improves 
and renders them smooth. With these bases the com- 
position of the alloys remains sensibly within the 
limits admitted by the brothers Keller, and which are 
on an average : — 

Copper 91.40 

Zinc 5.60 

Tin 1.60 

Lead 1.40 

100.00 

These proportions are those of the Column of July, 
the composition of which was more seriously reasoned 
out than that of the Column Vendome, whose alloy 
was composed of: — 

Copper 89.35 

Tin 10.05 

Zinc 0.50 

Lead 0.10 

100.00 

But, in this case, the proportions were so little 
attended to, that many pieces, being cast with scarcely 
any tin, were soft, thick, without relief, and have neces- 
sitated considerable expense in repairs and chiselling. 

The alloys of several large statues, cast recently, 
average less copper than those of the brothers Keller. 
The analyses of the bronze of the statues of Henry 



BLOXZLS OF ART. . 173 

IV., Louis XIV., and Louis XV., cast in Paris, give on 

an average : — 

Copper 82.45 

Zinc 10-30 

Tin 4.10 

Lead 3.15 

100.00 

This composition is more economical than that of 
the Keller bronze, and is well adapted for a statuary 
bronze. 

The ancients, who had no knowledge of zinc, or do 
not seem to have extracted or worked this metal, em- 
ployed for their bronzes the ternary alloys, made on 
an average of: — 

With the Romans, 

Copper ......... &9 

Tin 6 

Lead £ 

111 
With the Greeks, 
Copper ......... 62 

Tin 32 

Lead 6 

However. Roman medals have bee in which 

the proportions of copper and zinc were in the ratio 
of 45 to 1, with a slight addition of lead and tin. 
Small bronze statues, found in France at various 
; the Roman cohorts had sojourned, al so 
c - itain zinc. Various bronzes, recently obtained from 
excavations made at Athens, and of whi . lad seve- 

ral sam >les, had an average composition as follows: — ■ 

:er . . . . . . . . . 72 

Tin 24 

Z .-: 2 

Lead 2 

102 

15* 



174 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

We must suppose that the ancients accidentally em- 
ployed zinc combined with lead and tin, but without 
knowing the characteristics of zinc, the classification 
of which among the usual metals does not go further 
back than the sixteenth century. 

The manufacture of the bronzes intended for gilding 
requires fusible and fluid alloys, giving sharp castings, 
easily chased, cut, and turned, and, besides, possessing 
such a degree of compactness that the minimum of 
gold necessary for gilding may be employed. 

The alloys of copper and tin are too porous, and too 
pallid ; the alloys of copper and zinc are too pasty, 
and will absorb too much of the amalgam of gold, with 
the chance of breaking while cooling after the gilding 
process. If the proportion of zinc is too considerable, 
the metal becomes harder, but it loses the yellow color 
required for gilding. 

Therefore, the bronzes for gilding are to be found 
among the ternary alloys of copper, tin, and zinc ; and 
better yet, in the quaternary alloys of copper, tin, zinc, 
and lead. 

With these bases, according to our personal experi- 
ence, and the opinion of many experienced founders, 
the best alloys for gilding are comprised between the 
following limits: — 

82 
18 
3 
1.5 

100 104.5 

These alloys appear to fulfil all the conditions re- 
quired for the founder, the turner, the mounter, and 
the gilder. 

The experiments related by Darcet in his excellent 
memoir on the art of gilding bronze, which is still 



Copper . 


. 


. 


. 


70 


Zinc 


, 


, 


. 


25 


Tin 


, 


, 


, 


2 


Lead 


. 


. 


. 


3 



BRONZES OF ART. 175 

full of interest, although old, confirm these data, and 
show : — - 

1. That copper alone is difficult to melt and to cast, 
is too soft, clogs the file, does not take the gilding 
well, and requires too much gold; 

2. That copper alloyed with zinc in the proportions 
of 70 to 30, is pasty, soft, not adapted to chasing, but 
takes the gilding well enough ; 

8. That copper alloyed with tin in the proportions of 
80 to 20, is easily melted and cast, but very dry and 
brittle under the tools, and too hard to cut. The cast- 
ing is not sharp, is difficult to scour, and does not take 
the gold amalgam well. 

These defects of the alloys of copper and zinc, and 
copper and tin, are more or less marked, according to 
the proportions employed, but they are perceptible, 
nevertheless, in all the binary alloys of these metals. 
At the same time, these binary alloys are not well 
suited to the old process of gilding by amalgam. 

This latter inconvenience, it is true, may disappear 
by the present process of gilding by electricity; but 
the difficulties of casting, chasing, etc., are not changed, 
and are sufficient to induce bronze manufacturers to 
retain the quaternary alloys we have indicated. 

In the binary alloys, the compounds of copper and 
zinc are preferable to those of copper and tin. It is 
true that the latter are more fluid, but they are too 
hard and harsh, even with the proportions of tin 10 and 
copper 90. Their color is too gray, they are polished 
with difficulty, and resist the action of the burnishing 
tool. 

We shall conclude these indications by giving the 
composition of the bronzes of various statues, analyzed 
at the French mint in Paris. 

Bronze of the statue of Henri IV., Pont Neuf, 1817. 



176 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Copper 89.20 

Tin 5.00 

Zinc 3.50 

L^ad 1.20 

Iron, loss, &c . 1.10 

100.00 

Bronze of the statue of Napoleon, 1833. 

Copper 84.80 

Tin 5.80 

Zinc 6.00 

Lead 2.70 

Iron, loss, &c. . . . . . . . 0.70 

100.00 

Bronze of the statue of the Genius of Liberty, Column 
of July, 1832. 

Copper 92.00 

Tin ... 3.00 

Zinc 4.20 

Lead 0.70 

Iron, loss, &c 0.10 

100.00 

Bronze of the statue of J. J. Eousseau, at Geneva. 

Copper 85.60 

Tin 6.20 

Zinc 7.80 

Lead 0.40 

100.00 

Bronze of the statue of d'Assas, at Vigan. 

Copper 91.10 

Tin 3.80 

Zinc 0.80 

Lead 0.60 

Iron, loss, &c 4.20 

100.00 



ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 177 

Bronze of the statue of Moliere, at Paris. 

Copper 90.30 

Tin 590 

Zinc 2.50 

Lead 1.20 

Iron, loss, &c. ....... 0.10 

100.00 

We see that all these alloys correspond to the above 
quaternary alloys. These compositions are followed 
in the works of Victor Thiebaut, at Paris, who, at the 
present time, has quite the monopoly in the casting of 
large monumental bronzes. 



II. 
ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 

The conditions which such alloys should fulfil are : — 

A perfect regularity in the composition of the alloys. 

The most convenient proportions to arrive at com- 
pounds which bear well the action of the rollers, shears, 
and presses ; are not easily oxidable ; are sufficiently 
hard to resist wear ; and, above all, have enough in- 
trinsic value, so as not to debase that of the metal made 
into gold, silver, or copper coins. 

For the gold and silver coin3, we must employ 
metals perfectly refined, and alloy them with copper 
also pure, which imparts to gold and silver, too soft 
by themselves, the required resistance and hardness. 

The standard or fineness of a coin is the proportion 
of pure metal it contains. The French standard of 
coins is T % ; that of medals is higher, as will be seen : — ■ 

For gold coin . . . .90 gold, 10 copper. 

" " medals .... 91.6 " 8.4 " 
For silver coin . . . .90 silver, 10 " 

" " medals ... 95 " 5 " 

The English standard is about \\. The gold coin 
contains 11 parts of pure gold and 1 part of copper. 



178 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The silver coin contains a greater proportion of pure 
metal, and is composed of — 

Silver . 72.5 

Copper . 7.5 



100.0 

Before 1826, silver entered into the composition of 
the British gold coins. Hence the difference in color 
of these coins, at various epochs. 

The copper coins, manufactured in France since 1852, 
contain: — ■ 

Copper ....... ■■"■«, 95 

Tin ......... . 4 

Zinc ......... 1 

100 

Previously, their composition had often varied. 
Nevertheless, zinc was rarely employed ; whereas the 
proportion of tin was sometimes considerable. 

The small coins have not only often varied, but their 
intrinsic value has been singularly changed. At cer- 
tain epochs, the small coins contained from 1 to 2 parts 
of silver for 4 of copper. During the revolution, the 
small coinage was made with all kinds of metals, with 
scarcely any regard to the standard or quality. Hence, 
the great variety in the currency which was remelted 
in 1852. 

The old red sous, or sols royaux, were nearly pure 
copper. The hard, sonorous, and yellowish-white sous, 
coined during the Republic with the metal from church- 
bells, had for an average composition copper 86 and 
tin 14. The yellow sous, manufactured at the same 
time with a refined bell metal, were made of copper 
96 and tin 4. 

The manufacture of coins is at the present time pro- 
tected by a very efficient system of checks. Skilful 
chemists are employed at the mint, who, every day, 
receive samples taken from the beginning, middle, and 



ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 179 

end of each casting operation, and assay them. The 
latitude allowed is 0.002, more or less. 

It has been proposed to manufacture the new silver 
fractionary coins of the standard of 835 thousandths. 
The difference of 65 thousandths in excess of copper, 
or about 7 per cent, less in the weight of silver, is 
intended as a compensation for the supposed difference 
between the nominal and the intrinsic value of these 
coins. 

The alloy of 835 parts of silver and 165 parts of 
copper is said to be as malleable as the ordinary alloy, 
but with a somewhat yellower color. Mr. Peligot has 
proposed to add zinc to this alloy, which would pos- 
sess all the required qualities with a composition of 
835 parts of silver, 93 parts of copper, and 72 parts of 
zinc. According to Mr. Peligot, such coins are white, 
elastic, sonorous, and less ready to turn black than the 
present alloys, on account of the feeble affinity of zinc 
for sulphur. 

The standards of foreign coins are very variable. 
The silver coins in certain countries, and especially in 
Germany, are of a very low standard. Some have 
been made of equal parts of silver and copper. Others, 
which are more properly called monnaies de billon 
(small currency), contain more copper than silver. 

Belgium, the United States, &c, have manufactured 
coins of nickel, or of alloys of nickel with copper and 
silver. 

The last small fractional coins made in Belgium 
contain copper 75, nickel 20, and zinc 20. 

The small Swiss currency, coined in Paris a few 
years ago, contained copper, zinc, silver, and nickel. 
Their nominal value has recently been much lowered. 

The new billon coinage of Italy is made of: — 

Copper . 95 

Tin . . 5 

100 



178 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

The silver coin contains a greater proportion of pure 
metal, and is composed of — 

Silver . 72.5 

Copper . . . . . e „ . 7.5 

100.0 
Before 1826, silver entered into the composition of 

the British gold coins. Hence the difference in color 

of these coins, at various epochs. 

The copper coins, manufactured in France since 1852, 

contain: — 

Copper ........ 95 

Tiu 4 

Zinc 1 

100 

Previously, their composition had often varied. 
Nevertheless, zinc was rarely employed ; whereas the 
proportion of tin was sometimes considerable. 

The small coins have not only often varied, but their 
intrinsic value has been singularly changed. At cer- 
tain epochs, the small coins contained from 1 to 2 parts 
of silver for 4 of copper. During the revolution, the 
small coinage was made with all kinds of metals, with 
scarcely any regard to the standard or quality. Hence, 
the great variety in the currency which was remelted 
in 1852. 

The old red sous, or sols royaux, were nearly pure 
copper. The hard, sonorous, and yellowish-white sous, 
coined during the Republic with the metal from church- 
bells, had for an average composition copper 86 and 
tin 14. The yellow sous, manufactured at the same 
time with a refined bell metal, were made of copper 
96 and tin 4. 

The manufacture of coins is at the present time pro- 
tected by a very efficient system of checks. Skilful 
chemists are employed at the mint, who, every day, 
receive samples taken from the beginning, middle, and 



ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 179 

end of each casting operation, and assay them. The 
latitude allowed is 0.002, more or less. 

It has been proposed to manufacture the new silver 
fractionary coins of the standard of 835 thousandths. 
The difference of 65 thousandths in excess of copper, 
or about 7 per cent, less in the weight of silver, is 
intended as a compensation for the supposed difference 
between the nominal and the intrinsic value of these 
coins. 

The alloy of 835 parts of silver and 165 parts of 
copper is said to be as malleable as the ordinary alloy, 
but with a somewhat yellower color. Mr. Peligot has 
proposed to add zinc to this alloy, which would pos- 
sess all the required qualities with a composition of 
835 parts of silver, 93 parts of copper, and 72 parts of 
zinc. According to Mr. Peligot, such coins are white, 
elastic, sonorous, and less ready to turn black than the 
present alloys, on account of the feeble affinity of zinc 
for sulphur. 

The standards of foreign coins are very variable. 
The silver coins in certain countries, and especially in 
Germany, are of a very low standard. Some have 
been made of equal parts of silver and copper. Others, 
which are more properly called monnaies de billon 
(small currency), contain more copper than silver. 

Belgium, the United States, &c, have manufactured 
coins of nickel, or of alloys of nickel with copper and 
silver. 

The last small fractional coins made in Belgium 
contain copper 75, nickel 20, and zinc 20. 

The small Swiss currency, coined in Paris a few 
years ago, contained copper, zinc, silver, and nickel. 
Their nominal value has recently been much lowered. 

The new billon coinage of Italy is made of: — 

Copper ......... 95 

Tin . . 5 

100 



180 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

In certain foreign gold coins, gold is brought up to 
the proper standard by a mixture of equal parts of 
silver and copper. This alloy expands more than if 
copper alone were employed, although the specific 
gravity of gold alloyed with silver differs very little 
from the average specific gravity of the two metals. 

Moreover, we would remark that, as gold, almost 
always, naturally contains a small percentage of silver, 
difficult to separate in an economical way, silver is a 
constituent part ofgold coins, which therefore are ternary 
alloys. It is always possible to bring the gold to the 
proper standard, but the determination of this standard, 
on account of the presence of silver, is more difficult 
than that of silver coins, where copper alone has been 
added. 

At the present time, the bronze for medals is gene- 
rally made of copper 99 and tin 1. Zinc is rarely 
added to it. Nevertheless, according to the size of the 
medals, it is sometimes necessary to change the pro- 
portions, which vary between 90 to 95 of copper, and 
10 to 5 of tin. 

The ancient coins and medals were also based on 
ternary or quaternary alloys. The numerous analyses, 
made of coins found in various excavations or collec- 
tions, have never been concordant, and do not show 
any constancy or method in the manufacture of the 
coins. 

In certain Roman coins found in Flanders and in 
the north of France, silver was the predominating 
metal ; in others it was copper. The proportions of 
tin and gold were comparatively very small. 

The coins of antiquity were often manufactured from 
bronze statues, which the ancients erected and melted 
again with an equal facility, according to the fickleness 
of arms and fortune. The gold found in these coins 
was probably that used for decorating the broken 
statues ; and the tin had quite likely the same origin. 



ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 181 

Moreover, the ancients did not know how to refine 
the compound metals, and their metallurgic knowledge 
did not enable them to eliminate the foreign elements, 
which we at present extract by the refining processes. 

The old Indian coins, like the Koman ones, were 
made from quaternary alloys of silver, copper, tin, 
and gold. In those where silver predominated, the 
proportion of copper varied from 9 \ up to 48 per cent, 
of the weight of silver. 

The Saxon coins were an alloy of copper and tin, 
with smaller proportions of silver and lead. 

Some bronze coins from Attica contain, according to 
the analysis made at the mint of Paris — ■ 

Copper 88 

Tin 10 

Lead 1.5 

Loss 0.5 

100.0 

To sum up, the majority of the coins of antiquity, 
recently analyzed, show the constant and nearly always 
simultaneous presence of gold, silver, copper, and tin; 
and that, whether they were gold, silver, or bronze 
coins. Moreover, a few of these coins have been 
proved to contain small proportions of lead, iron, or 
zinc, which metals, the latter especially, were less 
known or employed, and were only to be found acci- 
dentally in the alloys employed in the arts of the 
earliest ages. 

From analyses made at the beginning of this century 
by the chemist Thomson, the composition of the silver 
coins of various countries was as follows : — 



16 



182 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 















Silver. 


Coppei 


England . 


8 


" sterling 


; money 






. 92.5 


7.5 


Austria 








. 90.5 


9.5 


Denmark 












. 88 


12 


Spain 












. 89.5 


10.5 


u 












. 84.5 


15.5 


France 












. 90 


10 


" 












. 1 


9 


Holland 












. 92 


8 


Hamburg . 












. 50 


50 


Piedmont . 












. 90.5 


9.5 


Portugal , 












. 89 


11 


Russia 












. 76 


24 


Switzerlan( 


1 










. 79 


21 



III. 

ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF ORDNANCE, ARMS, 
PROJECTILES, ETC. 

Pieces of ordnance from the beginning were cast of 
bronze. The ancient rules prescribed an alloy of 100 
parts of copper to 11 of tin. 

Numerous experiments have been made, at various 
times and in different countries, in order to determine 
exactly the best proportions of copper and tin ; yet, 
notwithstanding these trials, at present we use nearly 
the same proportions as formerly. 

Originally zinc entered into the composition of 
bronze for cannon, but its use has been gradually dis- 
continued. There was a time when pieces of ord- 
nance were generally made of a mixture of brass and 
bronze ; these two alloys being made separately and 
then combined. 

The brothers Keller have employed the following 
composition for the pieces of ordnance cast in their 
foundry : — 



Copper . 

Tin 

Zinc 



100 
9 
6 



115 



ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF OBMTAKCK, ABMS, ETC. lo3 

The proport .v. ice admitted among the principal 
nations of Europe have been:— 

".■.::■-.■ 1 ' . 

En-land iOfl 12. 5 

90 10 

« « to r j2 12 v, 5 

Arid, according to various authc . — 

.Copier... 100 Tin.. .10 

Mi ' V Tin. ..10 Zinc.-OE-: 

St.^ Copper. ..100 -.11 

Prussia i 

5 Cagper-.J Tin... 10 

- '--'-7 J 

The mining engineers and officers of artillery in 
France have lndertakeo many experiments oof cralj 

oo the binary ai jv= of tt .tt-' ano" . '. out also on the 
-.'.:...:.:■ hoys t ; bronze uniteo -on leao zinc 

&c. It has generaiiy been found that ah o.oo oomoiex 
alloys ore altered b j remelt ng irere iiffici 
tain, and recj : red great trocautio . . : ir o the cast ng 
3 it giving m ict certainty at to the results. 

It has been tried to coml ie separately first and 
then together the cast iron ton: or aod t t •o.t.ter- 
ig at truly homogeneous and oys. There- 

fore if has been necessary to return to bronze, and to 
study thoroughly the properties of this metaL W e 
have tt tot ie here the applications oi tt t 

v/rougbt iron t: -.teei tt the mar ;.f'acture tf ordnance. 
aJ oy of ooooer and tin in troo: to be best 
suited tt the manufacture of ordnanoe ; must present 
the : - g chars tttott tt : — 

A fineiy granh.ar fraotire. of t reddish tinge vrith- 
out any admixture of whitish spots. — Yellowish tex- 
t o. — Specific gravity above to average of the 
tto tt'tot .'nott.it. — Present tg toe rnez mom oi" rnai- 
leability and tenacity possible with the alloys of cop- 



186 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

of certain metals into other. This is a field from 
which we may expect many important changes and 
discoveries on the subject of alloys. We confine our- 
selves to this indication, and pass to the rapid classi- 
fication of the interesting data furnished by the past 
and the present, concerning our present study. 

The ancients, who were not conversant with the art 
of working iron, and had scarcely any knowledge of 
the metal itself, used for their weapons the various 
alloys of copper and tin known under the name of 
bronze. 

Many of these alloys appear to have been made of 
14 parts of tin to 100 of copper. However, it has 
been found by analysis that certain arms contained 
from 17 to 18 parts of tin for 83 to 82 of copper. 

Roman weapons have shown by analysis — 

Copper 81 

Tin 19 

100 

Other weapons, collected from recent excavations 
made on the places traversed by the Roman cohorts 
in ancient Gaul, gave on an average — 

Copper . . . 92 

Tin 7 

Lead 1 

100 

Several have exhibited a trace of zinc. 

The ancient alloys for weapons or edge-tools appear, 
most of them, to have been hammer-hardened, after 
being cast, in order to increase the density and hard- 
ness of the metal. The makers of these primitive 
tools have evidently tried to find in bronze certain of 
the qualities of steel, which metal was not known to 
them. 

The hardening by a slow and protracted hammering 
must evidently have imparted to their alloys a greater 



ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF ORDNANCE, ARMS, ETC. 187 

hardness, and therefore a sharper edge; but the te- 
nacity of the metal would have been impaired, and the 
weapons rendered brittle, if the ancients had not had 
recourse to the annealing and dipping processes, which 
were certainly known, and without which the cold 
hammered metal would have lost all toughness and 
suppleness. 

We know that if iron and steel become brittle by 
the hardening process, it is not so with bronze, which, 
being heated to the proper point and then dipped into 
cold water, acquires toughness and ductility at the 
same time. 

Arms and cutting instruments have recently been 
studied by many savans and manufacturers. We 
have already seen in this work how many metals have 
been experimentally alloyed with steel in order to im- 
prove its cutting edge, to give it a damaskeened pat- 
tern, &c. 

Gold, silver, platinum, nickel, aluminium itself, and 
many other metals, have been brought forward to im- 
part to steel peculiar properties. Nothing that we 
know of at the present time has given sufficiently cer- 
tain, complete, and secure results to encourage the 
manufacturers in working them on a large scale. 

Therefore we have no such alloys to indicate, and 
we refer our readers to what we have already said 
about the possible combinations of steel with the other 
metals. 

We shall terminate this chapter by rapidly mention- 
ing a few alloys adapted to our subject. 

The bronze or brass for the mountings of arms, 
which is said to best fulfil the required conditions of 
hardness, malleability, and tenacity, is made of: — 

Copper 80 

Zinc 17 

Tin 3 

100 



188 PRACTICAL GUrDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

We at present employ, for the same purpose, the 
alloys of copper and aluminium, and the white alloys 
in which copper, zinc, and nickel are generally em- 
ployed. 

Alloys for projectiles : — 

Lead shot. Lead 99 

Arsenic ..*.... 1 

100 

In the preparation of lead shot, a little arsenic is 
added to the lead, which is allowed to fall from a great 
height, and acquires a more spherical shape, instead 
of an elongated one. In order to produce the arsenide 
of lead necessary for the operation, it is sufficient to 
melt the lead with some arsenious acid. Certain 
makers employ the ordinary commercial lead, without 
any preparation ; however, from the opinion of the 
majority of manufacturers, the arsenide of lead is to 
be preferred. 

Gun balls. Lead 97 98 

Zinc 3 2 

100 100 

This alloy is said to give more exactness in firing 
than is the case with balls of pure lead ; but we think 
that this result requires confirmation. We rather be- 
lieve that a little zinc added to lead, increases its hard- 
ness, and prevents its loss of shape by cooling. In- 
deed, it often happens that the balls, by the contraction 
due to the cooling, contain cavities which may be seen 
by cutting. But zinc, when the alloy is well com- 
bined, appears to prevent the shrinkage entirely, or at 
least partially. 

This defect has been obviated by giving an ovoid 
shape to the ball moulds, and then compressing the 
cast balls to a spherical form under a press. In Eng- 
land, several manufacturers have tried to obtain the 



ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 189 

balls from drawn-out cylinders of lead, cut into frag- 
ments of convenient size, and then compressed into 
shape* 

The modifications in the shape of the projectiles, 
which tend to be substituted for the spherical balls in 
weapons of war, will bring into use, for the reasons 
already stated, the alloys of lead and zinc, or zinc 
alone, especially if the volume of these projectiles be 
much more considerable than that of the old balls. 



IV. 
ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 

The alloys of the majority of the usual metals, 
which we have previously examined, may be rendered 
ductile and malleable by following certain proportions 
indicated by experience. 

In the ordinary practice of the arts, the so-called 
ductile metals, such as gold, silver, copper, &c.,f when 
alloyed with other metals, tin, lead, zinc, for instance, 
may furnish intermediary products, which are ductile 
and malleable at various degrees. 

We shall not examine here all the ductile alloys 
which may be produced for the rolling and drawing 
processes. Moreover, the bases of these alloys will be 
found in various parts of this book. 

We shall only speak in general of the preparation 
of the principal alloys of copper with zinc, tin, or lead, 

* Lead is not entirely devoid of elasticity, and this property has 
prevented the further use of compression in the manufacture of 
balls. The balls, which, immediately after being compressed, fitted 
the bore of the gun, had expanded so much after some time of rest 
in the armories, that they would not enter the same gun. — Trans. 

t We do not mention iron, which being ductile and malleable 
when alone, loses these qualities, or at least does not acquire any 
new ones, when it is combined with other metals. 



190 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which are the most useful for the manufacture of plates, 
sheets, bars, and wires. 

A malleable brass was, for a long time, obtained by 
directly treating calamine in the " German" furnace. 
It has only been since the beginning of this century 
that the large foundries have made brass by the direct 
alloy of copper and zinc in the metallic state. 

The distance of the mines of calamine was also the 
principal drawback to the manufacture of brass in the 
French works. At the end of the year 1816 experi- 
ments were begun at the Romilly works, as we have 
mentioned in our book Be la Fonderie, for the direct 
alloy of copper with zinc, but were not satisfactory 
for a long time. The metal produced was tenacious 
enough, but hard and little malleable. Better results 
were obtained by refining the copper intended for the 
crucible, because, until then, a portion of the zinc was 
oxidized and lost in the drosses. But it is to the small 
proportion of J of one per cent, of lead, added to the 
alloy, that we owe the success of that mode of operation. 

From that time, the metal, without losing its tena- 
city, became milder under the rollers, more ductile in 
the draw-plate, and wires were obtained as fine as 
those made from the best brass of Namur. 

Mr. Le Brun, at present inspector of the Ecoles des 
Arts et Metiers, was one of the authors of the progress 
made in the manufacture of malleable brass at the 
Eomilly works, of which he was then the manager. 
We owe to him the following proportions, which have 
been the base of all such alloys, without sensible change. 

Alloy for hammering, plates, and fine wires: — 

Copper ........ 67 

Zinc 33 

Lead . 0.5 

100.5 



ALLOTS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 191 

Alloy for pin wire, which must possess a certain 
toughness : — 

Copper 67 

Zinc 33 

Lead 0.5 

Tin 0.5 

101.0 

In general, if we increase the proportion of copper, 
the alloy is harder and clogs the file more ; if the pro- 
portion of zinc is increased, the metal becomes less 
homogeneous and tenacious. The stirring in the cru- 
cible must be made with dry white wood, instead of 
an iron tool, which becomes mixed in the alloy, and 
renders it flawy and hard. 

From these compositions, we see that the brass for 
rolling, sensibly remains between the limits of 2 parts 
of copper to 1 of zinc, in the case of brass of first 
quality. It appears to be demonstrated that a less 
proportion of zinc will not give a metal a3 malleable, 
when hot, as the above alloys, and without the aid of 
lead and tin. 

But it is possible, in the brass of second quality, to 
employ as much as 40 parts of zinc to 60 of copper. 
The color of this alloy is a pale yellow, intermediate 
between that of brass of first quality, and tombac. The 
fracture of the metal is close and fine ; its specific 
gravity reaches 8.45, whereas by calculation it would 
give about 8 only, from whence we infer that there is 
a contraction. 

This alloy, which ought to be considered as a chemi- 
cal compound in definite proportions, is harder than 
copper, very difficult to break, and so malleable that 
it may easily be forged wmen hot, and planed when 
cold. 

"We published, a few years ago, a note relative to the 
process of casting the copper intended for rolling. We 



192 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

shall borrow from it all that we have to say on this 
subject, nor do we believe that our conclusions should 
be modified by what has since been done in the works 
where malleable copper is manufactured. 

" The experiments we have made in running cast 
iron into metallic moulds, have caused us to ascertain 
whether a similar process would not be advantageous 
for casting the copper plates intended for rolling. From 
inquiries made at one of the copper- works of the depart- 
ment of l'Eure, and from our own researches, we have 
obtained sufficiently satisfactory data on the casting of 
copper into metallic moulds, to enable us to advise 
manufacturers to prefer this process, which, in future, 
will be found more advantageous than those actually 
employed in the majority of works where sheet-copper 
is produced. 

" The method, which, in the absence of a better one, 
was preferably employed for casting rolling copper, 
consisted in pouring the melted copper into moulds of 
hard stone, covered with an earthy coating, heated 
upon the stone itself. These moulds, which, moreover, 
did not produce castings always free from blown holes, 
and other grave defects, were also exceedingly heavy 
and difficult to move. Besides, they would become out 
of shape, on whatever bottom they were resting. The 
repairs were frequent and costly, on account of the 
wear due to the shrinkage, notwithstanding the fact 
that the cast metal was taken off as rapidly as possible. 

"The importance of these defects caused a search 
for better processes, and several manufacturers soon be- 
gan to employ cast-iron moulds. The melted copper 
was run first into uncovered moulds resting upon a 
fixed copper bottom ; the whole being heated to a 
temperature of from 80° to 100° C. This method, 
which is possibly employed at the present day in some 
works, replaced with advantage the use of stones, 



ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 193 

although it is open to the general objection of un- 
covered and too easily disturbed moulds. 

"After numerous and often unsuccessful trials, it 
became possible to obtain better results with the pro- 
cess which we are going to describe. In our opinion, 
casting under pressure is the base of the new improve- 
ments which are to be sought for. 

"The upright standing ingot-moulds, tried with 
great success in two or three works in the vicinity of 
Evreux, are made of two cast-iron pieces, perfectly 
planed, and inclosing a space equal to the metallic 
slabs desired, but not less than 0.012 metre in thick- 
ness. On the top is an opening, like a funnel, for run- 
ning in the metal, and for the escape of gases. 

" The side of the funnel opposite that for the entrance 
of the copper is somewhat higher, in order that the 
liquid shall not run over. Each mould is kept closed 
by clamps or wedges, and is inclined during the cast- 
ing about ten degrees. 

" The moulds are subjected to the following neces- 
sary operation before casting : they are smeared over 
with just enough oil to retain a very thin layer of 
charcoal-dust, which is thrown upon it by means of a 
sack similar to that used by moulders in sand. The 
temperature of the moulds also requires attention, 
as more than from 80° to 100° 0. will impair the 
homogeneousness of the alloy ; a less heat will occa- 
sion flaws, blown holes, and separated drops. The 
workman in charge of the moulds must be careful to 
open them immediately after the casting is done, 
otherwise the slabs will be broken. The same person 
attends to the cooling of the moulds, when, after each 
operation, they have acquired too high a temperature. 

" As regards the cast-iron moulds, experience has 
taught that the metal must be very mild, and in every 
case well annealed. The moulds which have not been 
17 



194 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

annealed, generally produce copper plates or slabs 
filled with blown holes. 

" But although these processes are to be preferred 
to the old methods, they may yet be considerably im- 
proved. For instance, while we retain the principle 
of casting under pressure in metallic moulds, we may 
vary the nature of these moulds, and obtain more 
homogeneous and perfect metallic slabs or plates which 
are better fitted for the purpose of rolling. 

" Metallic moulds made of brass (copper 70, zinc 30), 
oiled and then smoked with rosin soot, have furnished 
plates without blown holes, but presenting a few blem- 
ishes at the upper part. The moulds become heated 
very much and crack. 

" Cast-iron moulds, perforated with small holes for 
the escape of the air, at the same time that they re- 
tained the clay with which the inside was covered, gave 
us better results. The clay used was the fine stuff' em- 
ployed by moulders in clay, and its thickness was 
not over two to three millimetres, regulated by a 
board. This clay was then brought to a red heat, and 
covered afterwards with a coat of the liquid black 
employed by cast iron moulders. The copper plates 
obtained from such moulds were very fine and with- 
out any blown holes. It remains to be ascertained 
whether the pellicle which covers the metal, and 
which is thicker that that of the metal cast in direct 
contact with the metallic moulds, will not prevent the 
thorough scouring necessary for a fine appearance in 
the laminated sheets. Once this fact is ascertained — 
and we have no doubt that it will succeed with the al- 
loys of copper and zinc* — the process which we have 

* The results will not be so advantageous for pure copper. This 
metal, employed in the pure state, and cast in sand, loses part of 
its tenacity, and becomes very flexible and porous, especially if 
the castings are not very thick. It may be feared that the lining 
of clay, notwithstanding its thinness, will act the same as sand 
on the quality of copper. 



ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 195 

indicated will be the best, because all of the inconve- 
niences resulting from the direct contact of the metallic 
surfaces will be avoided without considerably increas- 
ing the expenses of labor and repair. Copper moulds 
with a lining of sheet-iron, or cast-iron moulds alloyed 
with 5 per cent, of copper, well annealed and maintained 
at a proper temperature, gave also good copper slabs for 
rolling; but none of these latter moulds have, as com- 
pletely as those lined with clay, prevented the forma- 
tion of blown holes. 

"This, the most troublesome of defects, particularly 
so for rolling copper, is corrected in the preparation 
of the alloys. 

"Pure and new copper is naturally porous during 
the first meltings, but becomes improved by repeated fu- 
sions. Nevertheless, it is very difficult to obtain sound 
slabs of pure copper, and it has been found advanta- 
geous in practice to add from 1 to 2 per cent, of lead 
to the copper which is to be laminated. A small per- 
centage of lead is also very proper for brass, and ex- 
cellent sheets are made of 66 parts of pure copper, 33 
of zinc, and 1 of lead. The manufacturers of these 
alloys sometimes carry their economy so far, by re- 
ducing the proportion of copper, that the proper pro- 
ducts cannot be obtained. There are limits within 
which it is prudent to remain, and the proportion of 
copper should never be less than 60 per cent. The 
alloys of brass, of similor, &c, like new copper, be- 
come improved by a second fusion ; but when the di- 
rect alloy is properly made, that is, when the metals 
are combined after having been separately melted, and 
when the proper degree of heat is obtained, the stir- 
ring sufficient, and the casting rapid, good products 
may be obtained without incurring the expense and 
waste of a second melting. 

" Old pieces of copper added to the new alloy help 
the combination of the metals ; but the old pieces must 



196 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

be of good quality, and generally sheets deprived of 
any trace of solder, tin, or iron. Old kitchen caldrons, 
saucepans, pipes, &c, are not good, because they are 
seldom pure; when employed, they are previously sub- 
mitted to a red heat, in order to eliminate most of the 
foreign metals or substances. The old copper sheath- 
ings of ships are not satisfactory ; the cast plates made 
of them are exceedingly hard and brittle, and experi- 
ence has proven that these slabs or plates remain of an 
inferior quality, even after the addition of 50 per cent, 
of new copper. It is therefore necessary to make a 
good choice of the old copper which is to be added to 
the alloy, since it has a great effect on the results. The 
best old copper comes from stamped, drawn-out, and 
laminated pieces, from the waste of laminated sheets 
or imperfect plates, and with them we obtain more 
homogeneous and tenacious alloys, which, therefore, are 
better adapted to the laminating process. 

" We must carefully verify, before they are intro- 
duced into the alloy, the old pieces of copper cast in 
foundries, because these coppers have a variable com- 
position, and are almost always the result of all sorts of 
old copper thrown into the crucible, without regard to 
their quality. Indeed, the ordinary castings do not 
require an alloy as rigorously exact as is the case 
when the metal is to be laminated. 

" To sum up, the manufacture of the copper, brass, 
and other similar alloys for rolling, is based upon : — 

" 1. The process of casting, the material, shape, and 
size of the metallic moulds, which receive the molten 
metal, and we have stated the conditions which, in our 
opinion, are to be attended to. 

" 2. The quality of the raw materials and the com- 
position of these alloys. This question is most impor- 
tant, and it is necessary to determine in advance what 
will be the most favorable and economical conditions 



ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 197 

for the mixture of new copper with zinc, tin, lead, or 
old copper. 

" 3. The mode of operation, and the proper degree 
of temperature for casting. Copper and its alloys re- 
quire generally to be cast hot, nearly in a state of ebul- 
lition, if we desire to obtain sound castings ; neverthe- 
less, we should not go beyond certain limits if we wish 
to avoid waste. The proper time for casting is, as a 
rule, when the surface of the bath becomes bright, 
slides to a reddish-white, and shows by its motion that 
the molten mass has acquired the maximum of tem- 
perature which is convenient." 

Among the alloys used in the arts for rolling and 
drawing, we would indicate the following compositions, 
which we shall examine again further on : — 

Bronze for sheathing — 

Copper . . . . . . . . . 96 

Tin 3 

Zinc 1 

100 

Brass plates, called Jemmapes brass- 
Copper ........ 64.6 

Zinc . . . . . . ... 33.7 

Lead ......... 1.5 

Tin 0.2 

100.0 

Similor for gilding or plating- 
Copper 92.7 

Zinc ......... 4.6 

Tin ........ 2.7 

100.0 

Maillechort for rolling- 
Copper ......... 60 

Zinc ......... 20 

Nickel ......... 20 



100 



17* 



198 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



V. 

COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHINGS. 

Mr. Bobierre, Professor of Chemistry at Nantes, has 
paid a great deal of attention to the causes of alteration 
in the bronzes employed for sheathing ships, and to 
the process for obtaining these bronzes in the best pos- 
sible conditions of alloy and manufacture. 

We here sum up rapidly the observations of Mr. 
Bobierre, which will be found sufficient to elucidate 
the question of these sorts of bronzes. 

Pure copper and zinc are yet employed for sheath- 
ing ships ; but the experiments of Mr. Bobierre, made 
on samples of sheathing which had been exposed to 
the action of the sea for several years, have brought 
him to the conclusion that bronze is preferable as re- 
gards solidity and duration. 

As a rule, it is desirable that the sheathing bronzes 
should be made of copper and tin, with a minimum of 
4 per cent, of the latter metal. The best proportions 
appear to be 5 or 6 per cent, of tin. 

According to Mr. Bobierre, we may consider the 
molecules of such homogeneous alloys as so many 
voltaic couples, from which the sea- water has a ten- 
dency to eliminate tin, in preference to copper. On 
the other hand, the force of cohesion being greater in 
bronze than in pure copper, the alloy ought to resist 
better the action of sea- water. 

The noted results of trials made in France and in 
England, on the sheathing of vessels which had made 
long voyages, show that good bronze alloys had resist- 
ed in the proportion of 2 to 1, and 3 to 2, as compared 
with sheathings of pure copper, or of copper alloyed 
with from 1 to 2 per cent, of tin. 

The alloys of a very red color, that is to say, which 
do not contain enough tin, are heterogeneous, scorified, 



COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHING. 199 

and with a coarse and irregular grain. This is ex- 
plained by the difficulty of thoroughly combining a 
very small proportion of tin with a large mass of cop- 
per, notwithstanding a good fire and complete stirring. 
Therefore, in such alloys too small a proportion of tin 
causes blown holes and stains, where it ought to act as 
the electro-positive element in opposition to copper. 

Mr. Bobierre has found by analysis that the sheath- 
ing bronzes contained not only sensible traces of arsenic, 
but also a comparatively large proportion of lead. 
These facts will be explained — first, by the ordinary 
presence of arsenical iron, and arsenic itself, in the tin 
oxides of Cornwall and of the coasts of Brittany; sec- 
ond, by the necessity of aiding the difficult rolling of 
pure alloys of copper and tin, by an addition of a few 
hundredths of lead. 

The bronze sheathing of the ship Sarah, which had 
imperfectly resisted the action of sea-water, was found 
by Mr. Bobierre to contain — 

Copper ...... 950 to 970 parts. 

Tin ...... 25 " 35 " 

Lead ...... 5 " 13 " 

Arsenic ...... perceptible traces. 

On the other hand, those of the packet-ship Ferdi- 
nand, which had stood very well, were composed of — 

Copper 850 to 950 

Tin 41 " 45 

Lead 6 " 9 

Arsenic ....... traces. 

Samples from the ship Aline, which had made several 
long trips, without any alteration of her sheathing, 
gave — 

Copper ........ 935 

Tin ......... 55 

Lead 10 

Arsenic ........ trace. 

1000 



200 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Other samples, taken by several manufacturers and 
ship-owners of Nantes from well-preserved sheathings, 
gave a proportion of tin varying from 55 to 65 parts 
per thousand parts of alloy. 

Mr. Bobierre concludes, from these facts: — 

That tin, which plays the part of an electropositive 
metal, enters in too small a proportion into the imper- 
fect alloys; 

That, up to a certain point, it is possible to deter- 
mine a ratio between the proportion of the more oxi- 
dable metals and the propensity of the alloy to become 
altered ; 

That the sheathings which had shown a great power 
of duration contain at least 4 per cent, of tin ; 

Lastly, that the grain of the alloy is coarse, its color 
bad, and the stains of tin apparent; or, to sum up, that 
the tin is not uniformly divided through the mass, 
when its proportion is below 4 per cent. 

These facts being admitted, and if we remember 
that when an alloy of copper and tin is melted, the lat- 
ter metal is oxidized in preference to the former, we 
may then admit that the experiments of Mr. Bobierre, 
without having a rigorous exactness, which is not, 
however, claimed by this chemist, may serve, a priori, 
as the basis for the production of good bronze sheath- 
ings, which a ship owner has the right to expect. 

Experiments made on bronze sheathings, allowed to 
stand for a certain length of time in a solution of — 

Alum ........ 40 parts 

Cream tartar ...... 20 " 

Common salt ...... 40 " 

have shown to Mr. Bobierre, besides his analytical re- 
sults: that sheathings rich in tin, with a color similar 
to that of bronze ordnance, a fine grain, and a fine 
homogeneous appearance, had their thickness uniformly 
diminished ; 

That the bronzes deficient in tin, and with the ap- 



COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHING. 201 

pearance of bad bronze, were unequally corroded, 
sometimes rough to the touch and sometimes perfo- 
rated, but most generally presented large worn surfaces, 
and irregular-shaped stains. 

Trials made on a larger scale, have confirmed the 
laboratory experiments of Mr. Bobierre, and we may 
conclude : — 

That bronze sheathings, as regards stability and 
duration, are to be preferred to copper and brass 
sheathings ; 

That the irregular alterations, so ruinous to ship- 
owners, result from a defect in the manufacture of 
these bronzes ; 

That the presence of arsenic in these bronzes does 
not produce as rapid an alteration as is the case with 
pure copper ; 

That the sheathing bronzes, with only from 2 to 3 
per cent, of tin, are not homogeneous, and are irregu- 
larly altered ; and that their durability on the ocean 
is, in every case, much inferior to that of the bronzes 
holding from 4.5 to 5.5 per cent, of tin. 

The desire to do the rolling economically by dimin- 
ishing the hardness of the alloy, and the introduction 
of harsh copper, of a doubtful quality, are the causes 
of the inferiority of the low standard bronzes employed 
for trading ships. 

The addition of a small proportion of lead, and even 
of zinc, into bronze sheathing, will improve these alloys 
by aiding the thorough distribution of the electro- 
positive element in the metallic mass. 

If, during the service at sea, the bronzes are a little 
more subject to fouling than pure copper, according 
to certain captains, the inconvenience is not so great, 
with good alloys, as to prevent the employment of 
bronze sheathing. 

As for the use of pure zinc sheathing, all naviga- 
tors know with what rapidity and energy the parasite 



202 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

molluscs (barnacles, &c.) stick to that metal, and ren- 
der its employment impossible. 

Whatever be the duration and the cheapness of zinc, 
it will always be more advantageous to prefer bronze, 
brass, or even pure copper, notwithstanding the con- 
stant alterations due to the frequent impurity and to 
the thinness of the latter metal. 

A few chemists have recommended the alloys of tin 
and zinc, in substitution for pure zinc sheathing. 
These alloys are hard, difficult to roll, and do not ap- 
pear to give better results than pure zinc ; moreover, 
their greater cost counterbalances their possible ad- 
vantages. 

Among the other alloys proposed or employed for 
sheathings, we may notice the alloy of Muntz, which is 
made of — ■ 

Copper 56 parts. 

Zinc o 40.75 " 

Lead ....... 4.50 " 



101.25 

According to Mr. Muntz, the lead plaj r s an im- 
portant part in this alloy, which without it would not 
be sufficiently oxidizable to prevent the careen from 
fouling. This alloy may contain more or less copper, 
and therefore be more or less economical. At all 
events, the proportion of copper should never be less 
than 50 per cent. 

This alloy appears to have given satisfactory results ; 
but Mr. Bobierre does not think it so good as a 
bronze made under good conditions. In this respect, 
this chemist disagrees with many ship-owners, who 
prefer the copper-zinc sheathings to every other alloy, 
even those of copper and tin made according to the 
indicated rules. 



ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 203 

VI. 
ALLOYS FOR TYPE, ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 

According to Mr. Ch. Laboulaye, an authority in 
such matters, an alloy for type metal must fulfil the 
following conditions : — 

1. Not too great a propensity to crystallization, 
otherwise the metal will crystallize near the metallic 
surfaces of the mould; 

2. Keady fusibility, in order to keep the metallic 
bath at a proper temperature without too much oxi- 
dation, which may be rapidly produced by the fre- 
quent dippings of the casting-ladle; 

3. Sufficient hardness for preventing the crushing of 
the letter, while printing; and at the same time suffi- 
cient softness for facilitating the operations following 
the casting, and the printing itself; 

4. A reasonable cost, so as not to increase beyond 
measure the value of printing material. 

It results from these conditions, that lead has been 
considered, up to the present time, as the base of alloys 
for types. However, as it requires to be hardened, its 
combinations with brittle metals have been tried. 

Zinc has the advantage of cheapness and easy fusi- 
bility ; but at the low temperature necessary to insure 
its combination with lead, it remains pasty and does 
not fill the moulds. 

The preference has therefore been given to anti- 
mony, which, alloyed with lead, answers the purpose 
better. 

The alloys of lead and antimony, which contain 
from 10 to 30 per cent, of the latter metal, according 
to the degree of density desired, may be made as 
brittle as desired by increasing the proportion of anti- 
mony. As long as the proportion of antimony is not 



204 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

over 15 per cent., these alloys possess a property of 
expansion which is very advantageous for sharp casts. 

The alloy with 15 per cent, of antimony is the most 
satisfactory, as regards fluidity and expansion by cool- 
ing. It is more fusible than either of the component 
metals. 

However, it was ascertained that the alloy of lead 
and antimony, notwithstanding its proper degree of 
hardness, had a vitreous nature, and imperfectly 
resisted the action of the press and of the scouring 
caustics ; it was then tried to increase the resistance 
without losing the other qualities of the alloy. This 
result was obtained by the employment of tin or bis- 
muth. 

The proportion of tin appears to range from 6 to 8 
per cent. A greater amount would cause a waste by 
oxidation; and the alloy would be brittle, by the 
too great tendency of tin and antimony to crystallize. 

Various alloys of copper and zinc have been tried, 
but without satisfactory results. 

MM. Didot have employed for their stereotypes an 
alloy of 1 part of copper, 9 of tin, and 100 of the 
alloy of lead and bismuth. Mr. Laboulaye has used 
for the same purpose an alloy of 1 part of copper, 6 of 
tin, and 100 of type-metal. But these alloys have not 
been successful, on account of their high price, their 
hardness when needing repairs, their refractory char- 
acter and rapid oxidation, and, lastly, their tendency to 
crystallization. 

Mr. Laboulaye indicates an alloy of tin with from 1 
to 2 per cent, of iron, which, being added to the type- 
metal in the place of 1 part of lead, gives a compound 
not very crystallizable, quite hard, and resisting well 
hard work, such as the printing of newspapers. The 
same author also mentions an alloy of Mr. Colson, 
made of equal parts of tin and zinc, which was very 
satisfactory as to resistance, but was discarded on 



ALLOYS FOR TYPE, ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 205 

account of the destruction by the zinc of the iron 
moulds and matrix, and the difficulty of dressing the 
types with the knife. 

The following combinations are given, more as 
guides for the experimenter than as absolute bases:— 

Printing-types — 

Lead ............. 4 parts. 

Antimony 1 part. 

5 

Small types and stereotypes- 
Lead . . - ... 9 parts. 

Antimony . . . . . . . 2 " 

Bismuth 2 " 



Or 



13 



Lead ........ 16 parts 

Antimony ....... 4 " 

Tin 5 " 



Plates for engraving music- 



25 



Tin . . . . . . . . 5 to 7.5 

Antimony . . . . . . . 5 to 2.5 

10 10.0 

This alloy is the more brittle, as the proportion of 
antimony is greater. Its specific gravity is less than 
that of each of the component metals. 

Lead . . . ...... 16 

Antimony ........ 1 

The presence of antimony is sufficient to impart to 
this alloy a great tenacity. The specific gravity is 
above the average of the two metals. 

This last alloy has been tried in all proportions, 
from 4 to 16 parts of lead to 1 of antimony. Some- 
times tin, zinc, or copper has been added to it; and 
18 



206 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

among several compositions, we may indicate the fol- 
lowing ones : — 

Lead ........ 8 

Antimony ....... 2 

Tin 1.5 

11.5 parts. 

Lead 4 

Antimony . . 2 

Zinc ........ 1 

7 parts. 

Lead ........ 7.5 

Antimony ....... 2.5 

Copper ........ 0.5 

10.5 parts. 

For large type, ectypes, matrix, &c., the following 
proportions have been tried : — 

Lead ............ 10 

Copper ....... 2.5 

12.5 parts. 

Lead ........ 9 

Antimony . . . . • • .1 

Arsenic . . • • • • • 0.5 



10.5 parts. 



Copper . 8 

Tin ........ 2 

Bismuth ....... 0.5 



10.5 parts. 



Copper • • 2 

Tin ........ 2 

Bismuth, . 2 



6 parts. 



Copper ....•••• 73 
Zinc 27 



100 parts. 



ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 207 

Copper 5 

Zinc 67 

Tin ........ 25 

Nickel ........ 3 

100 parts. 

Tin ........ 12 

Zinc 16 

Lead ........ 64 

Antimony ....... 8 

100 parts. 

Tin ...... 56 37.5 

Lead 42 60 

Antimony ..... 2 2.5 

100 parts. 100.0 parts. 

The last two alloys have been employed for en- 
graving plates. 



VII. 
ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 

The alloy for bells, known under the name of bell- 
metal, is generally composed of — 

Copper . 78 

Tin 22 

100 parts. 

This alloy is of a yellowish-white color, hard, brittle, 
difficult to file, and with a crystallization without lus- 
tre. It acquires a certain malleability when it is 
rapidly cooled off, whether by immediate exposure of 
the casting to the air, or by being dipped into water. 

From analyses of old bells made by modern chem- 
ists it has been found that the proportion of tin varied 
from 20 to 26 parts to 100 of copper. 

These bells were rarely manufactured with new or 
pure metals ; therefore, the analyses have often shown 



208 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

the presence of foreign compounds, useless or detri- 
mental to their qualities, especially certain white 
metals, such as zinc and lead. The former metal, 
when in small proportion, may not really prove a defect 
in bell-metal. It has even been tried purposely in 
certain alloys. Indeed, although zinc neither improves 
the quality nor the sonorousness of the alloy, it does 
not act very badly, and allows of the manufacture of 
cheaper bells, which, however, are not so perfect as 
those made of copper and tin alone. It is not so with 
lead, which, if present even in a very small proportion 
in bell-metal, will impair its sonorousness and hard- 
ness. Therefore, lead must be avoided at all events. 

We do not see any serious objection to the intro- 
duction of zinc into the bell-metal, provided that too 
much of it be not added. A small proportion of zinc 
renders the alloy more homogeneous, dense, fluid, and 
ready to acquire the peculiar tint of old bronze. 

It also gives a more economical metal, which ex- 
plains the sensible reduction in the price of bells, at 
present manufactured on a large scale in certain 
works. These manufacturers will soon crush the 
strolling melters, who for centuries had the monopoly 
of the casting of bells. 

The new manufacturer of bells tries to work ration- 
ally, analyzes and experiments with various compo- 
sitions, in order to apply the metals to the best ad- 
vantage. In the past, on the contrary, there were no 
other rules than that of the thumb ; and old metals 
were employed, such as broken kitchen utensils, 
spigots, tinned copper with solder, &c, which could 
give but dubious results. 

If we add to that the want of precise data as to the 
proportions, the alteration by fusion of the alloys of 
copper and tin, &c, we must not wonder at the differ- 
ences shown by the analyses of various bells. These 
variations were ascertained, especially during the crisis 



ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 209 

of the French revolution, when the church-bells were 
taken for the manufacture of cannon and coins. 

Besides copper and tin, the presence of zinc and 
iron was often detected, and also, but not often, that of 
silver and gold. The presence of the latter metal was 
less frequent than is generally supposed. 

If some credulous minds, at certain epochs, have 
brought precious objects of gold and silver to be added 
to the bell-metal, in order to gain indulgences or to 
make a pious offering, we must believe that the found- 
ers were smart enough to pass the valuable offerings 
through a less ardent fire than that of their furnaces. 

As witness, the celebrated bell of the belfry of 
Rouen, known under the name of the silver bell, and 
which was believed by tradition to contain an enor- 
mous amount of silver. Its analysis, made by the 
learned chemists of the Paris mint, gave : — 

Copper ........ 71 

Tin ......... 23 

Zinc ......... 1.8 

Iron ......... 1.2 



100.0 

and not a trace of silver. 

As we have already said, it is difficult to preserve the 
ultimate proportions of bell-metal, which is also true 
of all alloys. It is therefore necessary to increase the 
proportion of tin, if we desire that the alloy should 
have the composition demanded. But, whatever be the 
excess of tin added, we can never arrive at a perfectly 
exact composition, on account of the oxidation during 
the fusion, variable with the fire and the shape of the 
furnace, and of the phenomenon of separation, which 
takes place in the mould if the metal has not been well 
stirred and properly cast. 

From experiments on samples of bell-metal, made at 
different times, we have ascertained variations in the 

lb* 



210 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

alloy, ranging from 18 to 35 parts of tin for 100 of 
copper. 

In order to counterbalance the loss of tin in the 
alloy, we believe that without increasing the propor- 
tion of tin, a bell-metal might be composed of — 

Copper 79 

Tin . . . . . . . . 23 

Zinc ...*...■.»■■)• 6 

108 parts. 

If we suppose that the fire is properly managed, 
and that no unforeseen accidents take place during the 
melting and the casting, the cast bells ought to have 
an ultimate composition of — 

Copper 78 

Tin . e . . . . . . 20 

Zinc ........ 2 

100 parts, 

which corresponds to a hard, tough, and slightly mal- 
leable metal, the sonorousness of which has not been 
sensibly changed by the presence of the zinc. 

The quality of bells, in regard to sound, resistance, 
&c, also depends upon the shape and the particular 
processes of moulding and casting, outside of the ques- 
tion of the alloy. On this subject we refer our readers 
to our book de la fonderie (on foundries). 

Zinc, and even lead, are employed in England for 
the casting of bells ; but if the latter metal is tolerated 
at all, the proportion must be exceedingly small, just 
enough to perfect the homogeneousness of the alloy. 

Several analyses of modern English bells give, on 
an average — 

Copper i * ....... 80 

Tin ......... 11 

Zinc ......... 6 

Lead ......... 3 

100 



ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 211 

In old bells of the same country, an exaggeration of 
tin has been found, as much as 40 per cent, of the alloy. 
These bells were exceedingly thick, and their shape 
was widely different from the forms recognized by our 
present founders. 

In France also the proportion of the white metals, 
such as tin and zinc, is exaggerated, especially in the 
alloys for hand-bells, clock-bells, &c. For such objects 
the common alloy employed is a sort of potin (yellow 
pewter) made of — 

Copper . . . . . . . 55 to 60 

Tin . . . . . . . . 30 to 40 

Zinc : 10 to 15 

The metal for gongs and cymbals is composed, on 
an average, of — - 

Copper 75 

Tin . . . . . . . . . 25 

100 

This metal is whiter, more sonorous, more brittle 
than bell-metal, and is not so easily filed. 

Chinese gongs, analyzed by Mr. Darcet in 1832, 
have shown 78 parts of copper to 22 of tin ; and a spe- 
cific gravity =8.815. 

The composition for cymbals, admitted in the shops 
of the School of Chalons, after the experiments by Mr. 
Darcet, was— 

Copper ........ 80.5 

Tin ... 19.5 

100.0 

These alloys are brittle, and cannot acquire the 
desired resistance and sonorousness, unless they are 
dipped into cold water after being heated up to a cer- 
tain point. 

The alloys of copper and tin possess the property, 
which we have already mentioned, of becoming very 



212 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

malleable after having been brought up to a red heat 
and immersed in cold water. This property is made 
use of in the manufacture of gongs and cymbals. 

These instruments, cast in a slightly wet and loose 
green sand, in order to avoid any fracture by shrink- 
age, are then brought up to a red heat and dipped into 
water with certain precautions. After this operation 
they may be forged and hammered. The proper pitch 
is imparted to them either by the tempering process, 
or by a more or less protracted hammering at certain 
places, or by annealing them after they have been 
hardened by the hammer. 

The honor of the discovery of the processes which 
have permitted of the manufacture in France of gongs 
and cymbals, has been awarded to Mr. Darcet. The 
labors of this gentleman are already considerable 
enough, to make it unnecessary to attribute to him the 
industrial improvements due to the experience of 
workers not so well known. Mr. Darcet has certainly 
made analyses of the alloys of gongs and cymbals, and 
has given some sound advice; but the processes of 
manufacture and their improvement are due to the re- 
searches of founders, and among them, of Mr. Maillard, 
the skilful, learned, and modest manager of the foundry 
shop of the School of Chalons, who has made many 
improvements in founding and in alloys, and has paid 
special attention to the processes for moulding, casting, 
tempering, and hammering the alloys which we have 
mentioned. 

VIII. 

ALLOYS FOR PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL 
INSTRUMENTS. 

(Especially Speculum Metals.) 

Without speaking of the white metals, of the maille- 
chort (German silver), aluminium, platinum, &c, which 



PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 213 

are in daily use for the manufacture of certain philo- 
sophical or optical instruments, we shall here confine 
ourselves to the summing up of the best known alloys 
corresponding to the title of this 'chapter. 

The greater number of these alloys are for the fabri- 
cation of metallic mirrors, in which we require a true 
white color, a fine lustre when polished, hardness, 
and a clean surface which becomes with difficulty 
scratched, altered, or tarnished. 

The Chinese mirrors, which have attracted the 
attention of savans, in order to learn the bases for 
such compounds, have been found to contain some- 
times copper, lead, and antimony ; sometimes copper, 
tin, and lead. The latter alloy is grayish, susceptible 
of a fine polish, but presents no peculiar qualities. Its 
composition is generally — ■ 

Copper ,62 

Tin 32 

Lead 6 

100 

The former has a whiter color, a finer polish, and is 
not so easily tarnished by contact with the air. Its 
average composition is — ■ 

Copper^ . . 80 

Lead 10 

Antimony 10 

100 

Certain mirrors of antiquity show — 

Copper 62 

Tin 32 

Lead 6 

100 

In France similar mirrors have a composition ranging 
between — 

Copper .... 66 ... 63 
Tin 33 ... 27 



214 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

These compounds are very bard, brittle, with a fine 
polish of a steel-white color, and with a lamellar, gray, 
and dull fracture. 

Other more complex alloys have been employed, 
such as — 

Copper ........ 10 

Tin ......... 10 

Antimony ........ 10 

Lead 50 

80 parts. 

Copper 32 

Tin ......... 50 

Silver 1 

Arsenic ........ 1 

84 parts. 

In addition to these alloys, which are made of ordi- 
nary metals, but do not answer all the desired con- 
ditions, let us mention a few combinations made by 
chemists with less known metals, or metals difficult to 
alloy. 

The alloy tried by Mr. Despretz for mirrors is — 

Steel ......... 90 

Nickel 10 

100 

• This alloy is very hard, scarcely alterable by the 
air, and has a specific gravity = 7.684. The diffi- 
culties attending its manufacture prevent its applica- 
tion to the arts. 

The same chemist has also indicated for the same 
uses the alloys of palladium with gold or silver. An 
alloy of — ■ 

Palladium 50 

Silver 50 

100 

has a grayish shade, and is harder and less fusible than 



PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 215 

silver. Its polished surface is whiter than platinum, 
and its specific gravity is about 11.29. 

It is said that this alloy, recommended for the man- 
ufacture of marine instruments and the scales of ther- 
mometers, has been employed for the great graduated 
circle of the Observatory of Paris. 

However, this point is not perfectly settled, some 
authors contend that the same circle is made of equal 
parts of palladium and platinum; others, that the 
alloy is one of palladium and gold, a small proportion 
of palladium being sufficient to impart a white color 
to gold, and to increase its hardness. 

At all events, it appears to be certain that palladium 
is a component part of the alloy, and has imparted, 
whether to gold, silver, or platinum, a certain white- 
ness and hardness at the same time. 

Yarious chemists, and among them MM. Stodart, 
Faraday, and Dumas, recommend for the manufacture 
of mirrors for telescopes (speculum metal), or of objects 
requiring a perfectly neat polish, the following com- 
pounds — ■ 

Platinum ........ 60 

Copper . . " . . . . . . 40 

100 

which has the same color as platinum, and acquires a 
very brilliant polish. 

Platinum ........ 50 

Steel 50 

100 

which has a remarkable polish, difficult to tarnish. — 
Specific gravity, 9.862. 

Platinum . . 50 

Iron . . 50 

100 



216 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

which is crystallized, very hard, and sufficiently fusi- 
ble. It acquires a fine polish, and does not tarnish. — 
Specific gravity, 9.862. 

Platinum ........ 16 

Steel 90 

100 

whiter and harder than platinum. — A better polish. — - 
Specific gravity, 8.10. 

Platinum 20 

Copper ....... 80 

Arsenic . 0.5 to 1 

100.5 to 101 

ought to give the best mirrors, the alloy being more 
easily effected. — The alloy is of a grayish-white color, 
acquires a fine polish, does not tarnish, but its lustre 
is not equal to that of the entirely white metals. 

Platinum ......... 60 

Iron 30 

Gold . . . . ..... 10 

100 

which is white and does not tarnish, when polished. 

Gold ............ 60 

Zinc ........ . 50 

100 

which is whitish, finely granular, and oxidized with 
difficulty. 

Steel . . . . 50 

Rhodium . 50 

100 

which is very well adapted for mirrors, according to 
MM. Stodart and Faraday. — A very fine polish, which 
does not tarnish. 



PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 217 

Platinum . 10 

Iridium ........ 90 

100 

which, according to Mr. Gaudin, possesses more bril- 
liancy than pure platinum. — Notoxidizable. — Becomes 
harder by the usual hardening process. — May be ob- 
tained in sheets for the plating of reflectors. 

The alloys of platinum and iridium are very refrac- 
tory, and may be employed, according to the same 
author, for the manufacture of crucibles and retorts 
for chemical analyses effected at a very high tempera- 
ture. 

Tin 29 

Lead 19 



This alloy, when melted, will adhere to the polished 
surfaces with which it is in contact, and leave them on 
cooling. The thickness of the deposit is regulated at 
will by the time of contact. It is used for making 
metallic mirrors, and other pieces with facets, which 
project a dark lustre, and are known under the name 
of Fahlun brilliants. 

We certainly pass over many, and possibly valuable, 
alloys; but the indications which we have just given 
will show in what direction experimenters have worked 
up to the present time, in order to arrive at such me- 
tallic combinations as will take the best polish, con- 
jointly with the lustre, whiteness, and hardness re- 
quired for philosophical and optical instruments. 



19 



218 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



IX. 

ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, GOLD AND SILVER WARES, 
BRITANNIA WARE, ETC. 

The jewelry trade combines the gold ingots, which 
have a fineness of about 1000 thousandths (24 carats), 
with various alloys, in order to arrive at the legal 
standards, and also at the various colors of gold re- 
quired by the trade. 

The three legal standards for jewelry gold, as pre- 
scribed by law, are in France : — 

I. First standard or high standard gold. — 920 thou- 
sandths, or 22g J 2 to \ carats, the unit being divided 
into 24 carats. This standard is more particularly 
employed by the goldsmiths. 

II. Second standard or standard gold. — '840 thou- 
sandths, or 20 g 5 2 and 2 carats. 

III. Third standard or common gold, — 750 thou- 
sandths, or 18 carats. 

The tolerance is 3 thousandths, one way or the other. 

For the inferior standards, or low gold, the fineness 
varies from 500 to 750 thousandths. 

The colors of the gold used in jewelry work are :— 

Yellow or antique gold. — Pure gold. 

Bed gold. — Pure gold 750, copper 250. 

Green gold. — Pure gold 750, silver 250. 

Goldfeidlle morte (dead leaf).— Pure gold 700, sil- 
ver 300. 

Gold vert d'eau (water-green). — Pure gold 600, sil- 
ver 400. 

White gold, sometimes electrum. — Gold whitened by 
a greater or less proportion of silver. 

Blue gold. — Pure gold 750, iron 250. This alloy is 
quite difficult to produce, and is prepared with iron- 
wire dipped into the molten gold. It is then cast, 
hammered, in order to make it tough, and afterwards 
laminated or passed through the draw-plate. 



ALLOTS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 219 

The alloys of gold must be very homogeneous ; 
therefore they are melted several times. A good alloy 
should not show any cracks or grains when it is ham- 
mered or laminated. If the alloy is brittle or harsh, 
it is rendered softer or milder by melting it with a cer- 
tain quantity of flux (borax or saltpetre). 

The silversmiths employ silver at two legal stand- 
ards (in France) : — 

The first standard is 950 thousandths, and the second, 
800 thousandths. 

The tolerance is 5 thousandths. 
^The silver employed for the alloys is pure silver, 
and the standards are well kept. 

Thanks to the legal standards required by the 
French government for the works of gold and silver, 
and thanks also to the obligatory assays previous to 
the stamping of these metals, the jewelry, gold, and 
silversmith's wares manufactured in France offer a 
better guarantee of quality than similar articles manu- 
factured in England, Germany, &c. In these countries 
the precious metals, not being subjected to any control, 
are the object of the most audacious swindles, so much 
so, that articles sold as gold or silver, will often con- 
tain scarcely a trace of these metals. 

A quantity of jewelry has been, and is yet, manu- 
factured in England, from gold at the standard of 12 
carats and less, alloyed with zinc, instead of silver. 
This gold, which has nearly the color of 2-carat gold, 
has no other use than to deceive the trade and the 
public. Chains, thimbles, pencil-cases, &c., have often 
been made of this fraudulent alloy, which, after a cer- 
tain use. becomes separated as though under galvanic 
action, and leaves the articles entirely useless. 

The alloys employed in England for imitating or 
falsifying gold are generally kept within the limits of 
the following alloys: — 



220 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Jewelry Gold. 

Pure gold ........ 38. 85 

Silver ........ 5.70 

Pure Copper ....... 10.20 

54.75 
Ring Gold. 
Gold (coin standard) . . . . . 49.60 

Pure silver ........ 12.30 

Refined copper . . . . . . . 23.60 

85.50 

Gold {value 45 to 50 francs for 28 grammes). 
Gold (coin standard) ...... 31 

Pure silver ....... 38 

Refined copper ....... 27.5 

96.5 
Common Jewelry. 
Refined copper ....... 3 

Old Bristol bronze ...... 1 

4 

plus 25 parts of tin for 100 parts of copper. 

If this alloy is to receive a fine polish, the tin is re- 
placed by a compound of lead and antimony. By in- 
creasing the proportion of this compound, or dimin- 
ishing that of copper, the color of the alloy will become 
proportionally whiter. 

Yellow Metal for Dipping. 
Copper 7 ") 

Tin 2 \ Bronze* . .... 2 

Zinc 3 j 

Copper 1 

3 

plus 10 parts of tin for each 640 parts of copper. 

* We generally call bronzes the alloys of copper with tin, even 
with the addition of zinc and lead. On the other hand, brasses are 
the alloys of copper with zinc, or with zinc and lead, but without 
tin. 



ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 221 



Another Metal for Dipping. 

Copper ......... 48 

Zinc ......... 15 

63 

When in the preceding alloys we employ antimony 
instead of zinc or tin, the proportion of the former metal 
ought to be very small, otherwise the compound will 
be very brittle. 

Metal for Gilding. 
Copper ...... 4 

S er i }*- i 

5 

plus 70 parts of tin for each 80 parts of copper. 

Manheim Gold. 
Copper ...... 10 

£T r I } Bra - • w 

Tin 0.1 

11.5 



Or:- 



Copper .......... 3 

Zinc 1 

Tin 0.5 

4.5 

Chrysocale. 

Copper 9 

Zinc ......... 8 

Lead ......... 2 

19 
19* 



222 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Tombac or Similor. 

Copper. 8. 

Tin 0.5 

Zinc ......... 0.5 

9.0 
Red Similor. 

Copper. ........ 5.5 

Zinc ......... 0.5 

6.0 
White Similor. 

Copper ....... 6.50 to 7 

Arsenic ....... 0.25 to 0.5 

The two metals are put together in the crucible, and 
melted while the surface of the bath is covered with 
common salt in order to prevent oxidation. 

For a whitened copper we may also employ : — 

Copper ........ 24 

A Neutral Salt of Arsenic . . . . . 1.5 

25.5 

melted together with a flux of calcined borax, char- 
coal-dust, and powdered glass. 

Bath Metal 

Copper * " 3 1 Brass 48 

Zinc . . i/ wass . ... 48 

Zinc .... 13.5 
61.5 

Or another:— 

Copper ......... 75 

Zinc ......... 25 

100 
Pinchbeck or Prince Robert's Metal. 

I. II. 

Copper .... 90 .... 30 
Zinc .... 30 .... 60 



223 

The two proportions bear the same name ; however, 
the alloy II. is the one most usually known in Eng- 
land under the name of Prince Robert's metal. 

The English manufacturers, especially those of 
Sheffield and Birmingham, employ a great number of 
alloys, either for counterfeit jewelry, or for many ar- 
ticles of legitimate trade, such as buckles, window fix- 
tures, pieces of hardware, locks, &c, in which they 
excel, not only by the finish or the good taste, but by 
the metallic appearance of these wares. We shall 
also indicate the following compounds, which may be 
useful to know, whether as metals imitating gold, and 
for gilding, or as metals imitating silver, and for silver- 
ing. 

These alloys are well known in France, but not so 
generally as in England and Germany. 

Argentan (packfund or packfong) of Sheffield. — This 
ordinary quality has a yellowish tinge, and is employed 
for wires and common articles :— - 

Copper ......... 8 

Nickel 2 

Zinc 3 

13 

A superior quality, known as white packfong, imi- 
tates the silver of 750 thousandths, and is employed 
for spoons, forks, ornamental table pieces, &c. : — 

Copper . 8 

Nickel ......... 3 

Zinc 3.5 

14.5 

The following alloys are very malleable, white, and 
susceptible of a fine polish : — 







I. 




II. 




Ill, 


Copper . 


. 


4 


. 


2 


. 


1 


Nickel . 


. 


1 


. 


1 


. 


1 


Zinc 


. 


1 











224 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

These compounds resemble the alloys made in 
France under the name of maillechort. Their white 
color renders them well adapted for the operation of 
silvering, and there is so slight a difference between 
their color and that of silver that the body metal is not 
apparent after scratching or chiselling. 
German silver is made of— - 
Copper ......... 2 

Nickel ......... 1 

Zinc ......... 1 

4 

Chinese white copper or Chinese packfong : — 

Copper ........ 10.4 

Nickel . 31.6 

Iron ......... 2.6 

44.6 

German silver for rolling : — - 

Copper. ........ 6 

Nickel ......... 2.5 

Zinc ......... 2 

Lead 0.3 

10.8 

The French manufacturers employ for false jewelry 
the Euolz alloys, the compositions of which vary be- 
tween- 
Silver . . . . . . e 20 to 30 

Nickel . . . . . . . 25 to 30 

Copper . . . . . . . 35 to 50 

These proportions are those adopted by Mr. de Euolz ; 
but, by varying them, many combinations may be 
made, which resemble silver entirely, and are more 
economical. The metal made according to the above 
proportions contains from 20 to 25 per cent, of silver, 
and corresponds inversely to the second standard 
alloy of silver, which is composed of 20 per cent, 
of alloy, with 80 per cent, of pure silver. 



ALLOYS FOE JEWELKY, ETC. 225 



The metals employed should be of the best quality. 
The impure nickel is dissolved in muriatic, nitric, or 
diluted sulphuric acid. Chlorine is passed through 
the solution, and then the iron of the impure nickel is 
precipitated by ebullition with carbonate of lime. 

The nickel is afterwards precipitated by carbonate 
of soda, dissolved again in hydrochloric acid, and the 
solution is diluted with a great quantity of water. 
After saturation by chlorine, an excess of carbonate of 
baryta is added to the solution, which is then allowed 
to rest. The nickel is afterwards precipitated in the 
metallic state by a galvanic current, or in the state of 
oxide, which is reduced in the ordinary way. 

It is advantageous to melt the copper and the gran- 
ulated nickel first, then to introduce the silver. A flux 
is employed, which is composed of borax and charcoal- 
dust. The ingots are rendered malleable by annealing 
them slowly and for a long time in charcoal-dust. 

The employment of nickel on a large scale for white 
alloys dates back only a few years ; at present it is an 
essential base of the compounds which are to be sil- 
vered. 

The alloys known under the name of maillechort* 
sometimes, and wrongly, melchior, are made in France 
in the following proportions :— 

Maillechort, first quality :— • 

Copper ......... 8 

Nickel ......... 4 

Zinc ......... 3 

15 
Second quality : — 
Copper .......... 8 

Nickel 3 

Zinc 3.5 

14.5 

* Maillechort, German silver, argentan, and packfong are so 
much alike, that they may be considered as synonyms. — Trans. 



226 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Third quality : — 

Copper 8 

Nickel 4 

Zino . .4 



16 



More complex maillechorts have been made, but are 
not in great use, such as : — 



Copper 

Zinc 

Nickel 

Iron 

Tin 



55 

17 

23 

3 

2 



100 

These proportions were those of the first composi- 
tion of maillechort, patented more than thirty years 
ago. 

We find in the trade several kinds of maillechort, 
more or less employed, under the name of: — 

Paris Maillechort. 



Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc 
Iron 



65 
16.8 
13 
3.4 



Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc . 



German Maillechort. 



98.2 



50 

18.7 

31.3 



Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc 



Chinese Maillechort. 



100.0 



50 
25 

25 



100 



ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 227 

Maillechort for Spoons and Forks. 

Copper ......... 50 

Nickel . . ....... 20 

Zinc ......... 30 

100 
Maillechort for Bo lling. 

Copper ........ . 60 

Nickel ......... 20 

Zinc 20 

100 

This last alloy may be subdivided into qualities, by 
varying the proportions in the same manner as we 
have indicated for the three qualities of maillechort. 

The following alloys also belong to the class of 
maillechorts, argentans, German silver, &c; that is to 
say, contain nickel as one of the principal bases :— - 

Electrum. 

Copper ........ 8 

Nickel ........ 4 

Zinc ......... 3.5 

15.5 

This combination, which is nothing else but a mail- 
lechort of the first quality, imitates burnished silver, 
and is not so easily tarnished. 

Tutenag, 

Copper 8 

Nickel 3 

Zinc . . . . . . . . . 5.5 

16.5 

It is a maillechort of an inferior quality, which cor- 
responds to the ordinary quality of the packfong, 
formerly imported from China. This alloy is very 
hard, difficult to be laminated, cannot be drawn out 
into wires, and is good for casting only. 



228 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



The founders whose specialty is the manufacture of 
the alloys of copper with nickel and zinc, whether for 
maillechorts, or for similar products under different 
names, concur in admitting that the best alloy for 
beauty, lustre, &c, is made in the following propor- 
tions : — 



Copper 
Nickel 
Zinc 



8 
6 
3.5 



17.5 

It is also the most costly among similar alloys, on 
account of the large proportion of nickel. 

Alfmide is another compound which may be classi- 
fied among the maillechorts, but those of a lower 
standard. It is well adapted for electro-silver-plating 
spoons, forks, and other articles with a smooth surface ; 
but it does not succeed so well for decorated pieces, 
because the deposit of silver — and this is true of all 
the sorts of maillechort and German silver, to a greater 
or less degree — does not resist the fire, the acids, or the 
air as well as upon brass. The composition of alfe- 
nide is generally :— 



Copper 
Zinc 
Nickel 
Iron 



60 
30 
10 

1 



101 



Let us now mention the alloy of Mr. Toucas, which 
may be added to the preceding compounds, and is 
made of — 



Copper 


5 


Nickel 


4 


Antimony 


1 


Tin ... 


1 


Lead 


1 


Zinc 


1 


Iron 


1 



14 



ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 229 

This alloy has the advantage of being complex, if 
it does not possess other qualities than similar com- 
pounds. According to the inventor, it has nearly the 
color of silver, may be worked like it, and laminated 
by the ordinary processes. It is resisting, malleable, 
susceptible of a fine polish, with the lustre of platinum, 
and may be silvered perfectly well. For objects which 
are to be spun, hammered, or chased, the above alloy is 
convenient; but for cast and adjusted pieces it is pre- 
ferable to increase the proportion of zinc, in order to 
increase the fluidity of the metal. This compound is 
employed for ornaments, jewelry, harness, etc. 

Besides the nickel, which is used to impart to the 
alloys for false silverware the required hardness, 
whiteness, sonorousness, &c, manufacturers employ 
the alloys of copper, zinc, tin, lead, and sometimes 
antimony, bismuth, and arsenic, for white compounds, 
which to a certain point possess the qualities of the 
preceding alloys. 

We here give a few of these compounds :— 

English Tutania (white metal). 

SETS} 8 "" * 

Tin ....... 12 

Bismuth ...... 12 

Antimony ....... 12 

48 

The bismuth and the antimony are added to the 
molten alloy of brass and tin. The proportion of the 
brittle metals may be varied until the alloy has ac- 
quired the desired hardness and color. 

German Tutania (white metal). 

Copper . . . . . . . . 0.4 

Tin 3.2 

Antimony 42.0 

20 tr t 



230 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Spanish Tutania (white metal). 

Iron and steel scraps ...... 24 

Antimony 48 

Nitre ......... 9 

81 

The iron and steel must be heated to whiteness, and 
the antimony and nitre gradually added. 60 grammes 
of this composition are combined with 480 grammes 
of tin (about 2 oz. to 1 pound), in order to finish the 
alloy. A small proportion of arsenic is said to pro- 
duce a very fine white metal. 

Engestrurn Tutania. 

Copper . 4 

Antimony .......... 8 

Bismuth ......... 1 

13 

This compound, added to 100 parts of tin, produces 
a white metal which is employed in England for the 
manufacture of certain table wares. The following 
metals are also used in the same country, under the 
name of Queen's metal, for the manufacture of teapots 
and other vases imitating silver: — 

Tin . . . . . . . . 3 to 9 

Antimony . . \ . . . 1 " 1 

Bismuth 1 " 1 

Lead . . . . . . . 1 " 1 



The proportion of tin alone varies. 
Another : — 



6 to 12 parts. 



Copper ......... 2 

Tin . 50 

Antimony ........ 4 

Bismuth 0.5 

56.5 



A£LOY3 FOB ffiWKLEY, ETC, 231 

Or:— 

l-f er H Brass . 24 AntaMBj . . 018 

A::.i:i" !- -. Bisranfh . . IS 

Tin . 30 Lead . . .32 

In France similar sompounds are known nndei the 
names af Algiers :-:'. mnofor and meftd :. :-.:.■:, 
Fheii vs ..;". ; wnj asition is : — 

J.": era MetaL 
I. " II. 
Ha . . . 30 Tin c4.' 
AnftuBopj , ♦ 1! CSdppes ..." 
Antimony . . '" '- 

i : : 

I0O.C 

The alloy I is for the ::t; lofkcfcore : :' spoons forks 
goblets fee.; it has been :: :s ;e: smpl : ■■': .. . :■: ; .: :.i 
for engra vino ansae bis capable of acquiring a very 
ban Isome \ dish. 

rhe alloy IX is more especially era] I >yed fbi small 
hand-beUs 

11-.::. '. A :-.: : silver-like mefc . 

7:- . . . • • • • • ' ' 

Antimonv , , . . . . . . 1- i 



This alloy as the Algiers metal No. I is employed 
:";: making forks and spoons. 

Tiie following metal Ls used for :offeei ::s teat: ;:s. 
2.11 similar yases : — 

I/" ?/*: 

7-r-er '- '-- 

T:i" . . . • • • • - "-" - 

An-.iminv . 

Zinc , • ■ • • • • • • - r 

Hk various white alloys "''l:\:. '~-. :.:;■'- ~ ' -: init- 
iated m :. ~ : e classified among the name ; : h itamn : 



232 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

metals, which, at the present time, are very much sought 
for on account of their fluidity and their facility of 
acquiring a brilliant polish. The consumption of Bri- 
tannia metal is considerable in England for low-priced 
wares. 

The composition of these alloys is exceedingly varia- 
ble, and we shall confine ourselves to the indication of 
the principal combinations. 

As a rule, the preparation of these compounds is 
based on the idea of rendering tin harder, tougher, more 
sonorous, and more easily polished. 

Copper and antimony impart to it these qualities ; 
but, and as regards antimony, its proportion must not 
be exaggerated. An excess of antimony will not only 
impair the malleability of the alloy, but may also be 
dangerous to the health, as antimony is considered a 
poisonous metal, which does not resist the action of 
the vegetable acids. 

Britannia metal will furnish castings as fine and 
sharp as those made with the most fluid alloys of tin 
and lead, copper and zinc, &c. It acquires a finer polish 
than the alloys of tin and lead, whereas the latter is too 
soft to bear the action of emery and other polishing 
materials. 

All these advantages cause Britannia metal to rank 
among the most useful alloys * 

The most simple formula of Britannia metal is — 

Tin .... . ..... 9 

Antimony ........ 1 

10 
which is equally suitable for casting and rolling. 

For similar alloys copper and zinc are employed in 
the following proportions : — 

* For all the alloys of tin and copper, where tin largely pre- 
dominates, it is better to have prepared, in advance, an alloy of 
tin and copper, rich in copper, which is called a temper, and is 
added to the definitive alloy in the proportion desired. By doing 
so, the alloy is more homogeneous, and there is less waste by oxi- 
dation, as the point of fusion is not very high. — Trans. 



ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 233 

Tin . . 85 to 90 

Antimony . 5 " 10 

Zinc . . . . . . . . 0.5 " 2 

Copper . . . . . . . 1 " 3 

Bismuth is added to other alloys, and an alloy has 
been made of— 



Tin 

Antimony 

Bismuth 

Zinc 

Copper 



85 



5 
5 

1.5 
35 



100.0 
Plate pewter belongs to the Britannia alloys, and is, 
as its name indicates, especially intended for rolling. 
Its composition is — 

Tin ......... 90 

Antimony ........ 7 

Bismuth ........ 2 

Copper ...... 2 

101 

Certain kinds of Britannia contain neither zinc nor 
bismuth. Such is the Ashberry metal, made of— 

Tin . i . . . . . 78 to 82 

Antimony . . ■ . . . . 16 " 20 
Copper ....... 2 " 3 

When we adopt the alloy made of the five metals 
tin, antimony, bismuth, zinc, and copper, we may em- 
ploy the following proportions: — ■ 

1 part of brass (copper and zinc) made in advance, 

1 " tin, 

1 " bismuth, 

1 " antimony, 

which are melted together, and then remelted. During 
this last operation, from 15 to 20 per cent, of tin is 
added, according to the judgment of the manufacturer. 
A more complex alloy, called English metal, is 
formed of — 

20* 



234 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Tin . . . . . . . 88 

Pure copper ..... 2 

Sets h- • 2 

Nickel ...... 2 

Bismuth ...... 1 

Antimony ...... 8 

Tungsten ...... 2 

Mr. Karmarsch, who has thoroughly studied the 
properties of the Britannia alloys, says that the specific 
gravity of the alloys is 7.339 for laminated sheets and 
7.361 for castings. He explains this anomaly by the 
fact that the molecules, under the action of the rollers, 
have a tendency to become separated, their softness 
and malleability not being great enough to allow of a 
regular and uniform compression. This is not an iso- 
lated fact. M. Le Brun has also found a lower specific 
gravity for certain alloys of copper and zinc, which 
had been laminated or hammered. 

Certain Britannia alloys are very elastic, and well 
fitted for making wire. In this respect, they possess 
nearly the same amount of tenacity as pure tin. 

Britannia metal is easily stamped and laminated, 
although it has a tendency to break under the rollers. 

The casting is generally performed in metallic moulds 
of cast iron or brass. The different parts, for instance 
the feet and the handles of teapots, are soldered together 
with tin. The polishing is effected with fine sand and 
dry tripoli. 

A great many articles of Britannia metal are, at the 
present time, silvered by the galvanic process, the 
same as other objects of German silver, Chinese pack- 
fong, or maillechort, which are so well manufactured 
in England, France, and Germany, that it is difficult to 
distinguish them from pure silver. 

In some cases the Britannia metal is covered, by gal- 
vanism, with a deposit of tombac. 

A small addition of a solution of gold to the bath of 



ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 235 

copper and zinc, imparts to the deposit the color of 
similor. 

The Britannia alloys and the analogous compounds 
which require bismuth or antimony, and nickel occa- 
sionally, ought to be classified among the common 
white metals, rather than among the metals of a cer- 
tain value. But as these alloys are employed for arti- 
cles of luxury, where they are made into artistical pat- 
terns, we have thought it better to separate them from 
the more common white compounds made only with 
tin, lead, or zinc, and to give them a place in this 
chapter. 

For the same reason we shall mention a few more 
alloys, of which platinum is a component part, and 
which properly belong to those trades where the finish 
imparted to the work corresponds with the value of the 
metals employed. 

Mock Gold, or False Gold. 

Copper t . . . » . . 16 * 

Platinum ....... 7 

Zinc 1 



24 



Ductile Alloy of Gold with Platinum. 



Pure gold ........ 30 

Platinum 2 

32 

The platinum is to be added only when the gold is 
in perfect fusion. The two combined metals give an 
alloy which is of a lighter color than pure gold, more 
fusible, and very ductile and elastic. These qualities 
may be found useful for certain works, especially for 
delicate springs, which cannot be made of steel. 

The alloys of gold and platinum have been studied by 
an English savant, Mr. Prinsep, with a view of estimat- 
ing the temperatures of blast-furnaces, and other ap- 



236 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

paratus where a powerful heat is employed. But these 
experiments have not given better results than that 
previously obtained with platinum alone. 

Alloy for mirrors, ductile, notwithstanding its hard- 
ness, unalterable in the air, and receiving a brilliant 
polish : — • 

Platinum . 60 

Copper 40 

100 
Metals for Cutlery. 

Steel alloyed with -^ of platinum or silver, which 
is harder and more malleable than steel alone. 
Also steel with rhodium, &c. &c. 



X. 

WHITE ALLOYS. 

We include in this category all the alloys which are 
not used in the manufacture of what may be called 
articles of luxury, and which have not been mentioned 
in the preceding chapter. 

These alloys, of which we shall indicate the combi- 
nations most employed in the arts, are very important, 
as will be seen. 

The alloys of zinc, tin, and lead, which have already 
been studied in the second part of this book, may, in 
certain proportions, furnish white metals which, if they 
do not present all the qualities, possess at least some of 
the characteristics, of the alloys called tutania, queen's 
metal, German silver, minofor, Britannia metal, &c. 

The ternary alloys of zinc, tin, and lead are more 
economical than the former combinations, do not tar- 
nish more, are as easily polished, and may be laminated. 
The best proportions are within these limits :— 



WHITE ALLOYS. 237 

Tin .......... 16 ....... M 

Zinc .... 4 3 

Lead .... 4 ..... . 3 

It is proper to melt the zinc at the lowest tempera- 
ture possible, to add tin, and then lead. The whole is 
carefully stirred, and the bath is covered with borax 
and charcoal-dust, or rosin, in order to prevent oxida- 
tion. The proportion of zinc is increased, if toughness 
and hardness are desired ; more tin increases the mal- 
leability, the whiteness, and the polish ; but the pro- 
portion of lead should not be much greater than those 
indicated above. 

To these metals we sometimes add copper, antimony, 
or bismuth, in order to obtain the following com- 
pounds : — * 

English Alloys for Casts from Engravings, Stereotypes, &c. 

No. 1. Common quality. 

Tin, ........ . 3.36 

Lead ,...,.,... 0.48 

Copper ........ 0.18 

Zinc 0.60 

No. 2. Ordinary quality. 

Tin 100 

Antimony . 17 

This quality belongs to the series of the alloys for 
type-founders, the same as the following ones, which 
have already been indicated, or have nearly the same 
composition : — 

Lead . ........ 9 

Antimony ........ 2 

Bismuth 1 

* The white metals, which are not classified here, will be found 
elsewhere. The alloys which form this chapter are those which 
we have not been able to classify under the various titles we have 
hitherto adopted. 



238 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Lead 10 

Antimony 2 

Lead ......... 8 

Antimony ........ 2 

Tin ......... 1 

No. 3. Superior quality. 

Tin ........ 5.76 

Antimony ......... 0.48 

Copper ........ 0.12 

The copper must be melted first, and the other 
metals are added in the following order : tin and anti- 
mony. 

Pewter is generally composed of — 

Tin ... . ..... 80 

Lead ......... 20 

100 

but gives its name also to the above alloy No. 2 (tin 
100, antimony 17), and is then a pewter of first quality. 
According to Mr. Mackenzie, these proportions form 
the best combination of lead and antimony, as regards 
hardness, resistance, and whiteness. 

The pewters are employed in England for the same 
uses as the French alloys, whose composition varies 
between — 

Tin .... 82 .... 92 
Lead .... 18 .... 8 

100 100 

for common pots and plates. 

Better articles, under the name of Algiers metal, are 
made of — 

Tin .... 75 .... 90 
Antimony ... 25 .... 10 

100 100 



WHITE ALLOYS. 239 

An alloy improper for domestic uses has been made of — 

Tin 10 

Steel filings ....... 2 

Metallic arsenic ....... 1.5 

Arsenious acid ....... 2.5 

16.0 

This alloy gives a white metal, ductile, malleable, 
and very easily cast. But its poisonous nature prevents 
it from becoming extensively used, except in some par- 
ticular cases. 

Alloy for Seats of Stopcocks. 

Tin 86 

Antimony ........ 14 

100 

This alloy retains its polish quite well, even in a 
damp atmosphere. According to The'nard, it presents 
the remarkable property that when it is dissolved in 
diluted muriatic acid, the two metals become precipi- 
tated. 

Alloy for Plugs of Stopcocks. 

Tin 80 

Antimony 20 

100 

This is harder and resists friction better than the 
preceding. 

Alloy for Keys of Flutes, Clarionets, &c. 

Lead .20 

Antimony 40 

60 

This alloy is hard, and its polish is not easily tarnished. 

Hard Tin. 

Tin ......... 1 

Antimony . . . . . . . . 0.5 



240 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

This alloy appears to be on the extreme limit of the 
alloys of tin and antimony which may be used. 

Kustitien Metal for Tinning, 

Tin ........ 11.52 

Iron 0.48 

Antimony 0.15 

12.15 

This alloy has a blue tint when polished. It is very 
good for tinning the insides of kitchen utensils made 
of wrought iron. 

English Hard White Metal {common). 

%T i} Brass m 

Zinc 45 

Tin 15 

540 

Mock Platinum, or False Platinum. 

z"^^ l} Brass ...... 240 

Zinc ...... 150 

390 

Imitation of silver, especially as to its sonorousness: 

Copper ........ 448 

Zinc e ...... . 22 

470 
White Metal, called Prince's Metal. 



SEth } Variable proportions. 



All these alloys are brittle. They present no other 
interest except their white color and their fine polish. 

White Copper, or White Tombac. 

Copper 75 

Tin 25 

100 



WHITE ALLOYS. 241 

This metal is employed in England for the manu- 
facture of buttons and small articles of hardware. Be- 
ing sonorous, it may be used for hand-bells, &c. 

Various alloys for buttons employed in England: — 

No. 1. Superior quality. 

£°PP er ? 1 Brass 373 

Zinc 1 ) 

Zino 62 

Tin 31 

466 
No. 2. Ordinary quality .* 

£°PP er3 I Brass 373 

Ziuu 1 J 

Zinc 47 

Tin 47 

467 

No. 3. Common quality. 

C°PP er3 \ Brass 373 

Zinc 1 J 

Zinc 140 

513 

VogeVs alloy for polishing steel is employed in the 
shape of thin blades or files for applying rouge to the 
small pieces of steel of the watchmakers, and is com- 
posed of — 

Copper ......... 8 

Tiii ........ . 2 

Zinc 1 

Lead 1 

This alloy, which we have studied in the quaternary 
combinations of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, is very hard, 
resists the tools, and must be ground upon a stone. 

* From its composition, there being more tin and less zinc, No. 2 
appears to be the superior quality, and No. 1 the ordinary quality. 
— Trans. 

21 



242 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

XL 

FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 

This name is applied to those alloys which are com- 
bined in such a manner that they will melt at a given 
temperature. 

Although it is difficult to determine with perfect 
exactness their points of fusion, these fusible alloys may 
be useful in the arts and in manufactures for ascertain- 
ing a given temperature; for obtaining plastic metals 
easily melted, in order to obtain casts of delicate ob- 
jects which may be damaged by too high a tempera- 
ture ; for making very fusible soft solders ; and lastly, 
as a matter of precaution for such apparatus as is liable 
to be instantaneously destroyed by a sudden and exces- 
sive increase of temperature. In this latter connection 
may be named the fusible safety plates or plugs of 
boilers. 

These safety plates were at the beginning very ex- 
tensively used ; but at the present day they are rarely 
to be met with, and are no longer required by the rules 
which regulate boilers and steam-engines. However, 
it may be found useful to know the composition of 
these alloys. 

The fusible alloys are based on the property of cer- 
tain metals to become more fusible when combined, 
than they were when taken singly. Bismuth, tin, and 
lead, especially, follow this rule. 

It is difficult to obtain these alloys in a perfectly 
homogeneous state. They have a tendency to become 
decomposed while yet in a state of fusion, the lead 
going to the bottom of the fused mass. 

The alloy of Darcet or of Rose is made of — 

Bismuth . . 50 

Tin 30 

Lead 20 

100 



FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 243 

and is fusible at 100° C. (boiling water). A peculiarity 
of this alloy is, that it will become hot again, and 
enough to burn the fingers, after it has been cooled in 
cold water. The cause of this phenomenon is, that 
during the solidification and crystallization of the in- 
side portions of the alloy, the latent heat of these parts 
is immediately transmitted to the cooled surface. 

Mr. Darcet indicates the following alloys, which re- 
sult from his own experiments, and the proportions of 
which are : — 

No. 1. Bismuth 70, lead 20, tin 40.— Softens at 100° 
C, without melting, and may be kneaded in the fingers. 

No. 2. Bismuth 80, lead 20, tin 60.— Softens at 100° 
C, and is easily oxidized. There is, however, too much 
tin. 

No. 3. Bismuth 80, lead 20, tin 40. 

No. 4. Bismuth 160, lead 40, tin 70. 

No. 5. Bismuth 90, lead 20, tin 40. 

These three alloys become more or less soft at 100°. 
No. 4 becomes softer than either No. 3 or No. 5. 

No. 6. Bismuth 160, lead 50, tin 70.— Becomes nearly 
fluid at 100°. 

No. 7. Bismuth 80, lead 30, tin 40. — Becomes liquid 
at 100°; but not very fluid. 

No. 8. Bismuth 80, lead 40, tin 40. — Very liquid 
at 100°. 

No. 9. Bismuth 80, lead 70, tin 10.— Becomes soft 
at 100°, but does not melt. 

No. 10. Bismuth 160, lead 150, tin 10.— Neither 
liquid nor soft at 100°. 

These alloys are generally harsh ; nevertheless, they 
may be cut. Their fracture is a dead blackish-gray. 
They are rapidly tarnished in the air, and more so in 
boiling water, in which they become covered with a 
wrinkled pellicle, which falls as a black powder. 

A few savans have studied with great persistency 
the fusible combinations of bismuth, lead, and tin. The 



244 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

following table, made by MM. S. Parker and Martin, 
indicates the various points of fusion of these alloys: — ■ 



Metals of the Alloys. 


Tempera- 


Metals 


OF THE A 


LLOYS. 


Tempera- 








tures of 
fusion. 








tures of 














fusiou. 


Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 




Bismuth. 


Lead. 


Tin. 




Parts. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Degrees 
centigrade. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Degrees • 
centigrade. 


8 


5 


3 


202 


8 . 


16 


24 


316 


8 


6 


3 


208 


8 


18 


24 


312 


8 


8 


3 


226 


8 


20 


24 


310 


8 


8 


4 


236 


8 


22 


24 


308 


8 


8 


6 


243 


8 


24 


24 


310 


8 


8 


8 


254 


8 


26 


24 


320 


8 


10 


8 


266 


8 


28 


24 


330 


8 


12 


8 


270 


8 


30 


24 


342 


8 


16 


8 


300 


8 


32 


24 


352 


8 


16 


10 


304 


8 


32 


28 


332 


8 


16 


12 


290 


8 


32 


30 


328 


8 


16 


14 


390 


8 


32 


32 


320 


8 . 


16 


16 


292 


8 


32 


34 


318 


8 


16 


18 


298 


8 


32 


36 


320 


8 


16 


20 


304 


8 


32 


38 


322 


8 


16 


22 


312 


8 


32 


40 


324 



MM. Parker and Martin have employed these alloys 
as metallic baths for tempering tools. It is possible in 
this manner to determine exactly the temperature best 
adapted for various cutting instruments. 

The alloys of lead and bismuth have also been tried. 
They are too easily oxidized, and are difficult to make, 
on account of the separation of the lead. Bismuth in- 
creases the tenacity of lead. An alloy of equal parts 
of bismuth and lead possesses a tenacity from fifteen 
to twenty times that of pure lead. 

The alloys of bismuth and tin succeed better. Those 
which are best known are — 



ismu 


th 50 


Tin 50 


Melting at about 160O C. 


u 


33 


" 67 


" " 166 


i( 


10 


" 80 


« " 200 



FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 245 

The alloys of bismuth, lead, and zinc have been but 
little studied. An alloy of equal parts of these three 
metals is fusible at about 100° 0. 

An amalgam of lead, bismuth, and mercury — 

Lead 20 

Bismuth 20 

Mercury ........ 60 

100 

is very fluid at the ordinary temperature, and may be 
squeezed through chamois leather the same as pure 
mercury. This combination is sometimes employed 
for falsifying mercury; but, notwithstanding its fluidity, 
the drops, when made to run, have an elongated form. 

Mr. Mackenzie indicates an alloy fusible by friction, 
which is a combination of 2 parts of bismuth melted 
with 4 parts of lead, and then thrown into a crucible 
containing mercury. This amalgam becomes solid by 
cooling, but if we break it, and rub the two portions 
against each other, they soon melt. 

In general, the fusible compounds of bismuth, tin, 
and lead have their fusibility increased by the addi- 
tion of mercury. 

A very fusible alloy for casts is made by adding in 
weight a sixteenth of mercury to the already men- 
tioned alloy, fusible at 100° C, and known as the Dar- 
cet or Rose alloy. The new compound is fusible at 
the temperature of the human body. 

This quaternary alloy may be employed for ob- 
taining casts of certain portions of the human body 
after death; the ear, for instance. The animal sub- 
stances are destroyed by a concentrated solution of 
caustic potassa, and the metal remains. 

An alloy for silvering glass globes, by means of a 
small pellicle deposited on the inside surface, is made 
of— 

21* 



246 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Bismuth ..... e ... 2 

Tin . _ . . 1 

Lead ......... 1 

Mercury ......... 10 

An alloy for fusible teaspoons, &c, is composed of — 

Bismuth . ' . . . . . . . 8 

Tin . . . ...... 3 

Lead . . . . . ; . . . 5 

Mercury . . . . . . . . 1 or 2 

and is employed by amateurs in making amusing ex- 
periments with tea or coffee spoons, which immediately 
melt when plunged into a hot liquid. 

Leaving aside bismuth, the arts employ other fusible 
alloys, among which we may notice the following 
ones : — 

Tin 3 parts, lead 2 parts. Fusible at 167° C. 

Lead 4 parts, antimony 1 part. Fusible at a red 
heat, or about 500° C. 

Lead 1 part, zinc 1 part. A very tenacious com- 
pound, resisting friction well, has a brilliant lustre, is 
hard, somewhat ductile, and melts at a temperature 
varying from 460° to 500° C. 

Tin 2 parts, zinc 4 parts. Melts between 300° and 
350° C. 

Tin 3 parts, zinc 4 parts. Melts between 320° and 
360° C. 

Tin 1 part, zinc 3 parts. Melts between 280° and 
300° C. 

We now pass to the Ajopold alloys, useful for ascer- 
taining certain given temperatures. The principal of 
these alloys which were composed by MM. Appold 
Brothers, in order to determine the temperature of 
their apparatus for making coke, are : — 



Copper 4 


Tin 1 


Melting at about 1050O C 


5 


" 1 


« 


<< 


1100 


" 6 


" 1 


<( 


<< 


1130 


" 8 


" 1 


«( 


« 


1160 


" 12 


" 1 


n 


<( 


1230 


« 20 


" 1 


« 


<( 


1300 



ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 247 

In this connection we may state that the majority of 
alloys may be employed, in certain cases, as fusible 
alloys. It is sufficient to carefully determine the point 
of fusion of the alloys with proper instruments, and 
then to construct methodical tables in which are re- 
corded the variations of temperature corresponding to 
the nature of the alloys employed, and the proportions 
of the component metals. 



XII. 

ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ANTI-FRICTION 
METALS, &c. 

We classify these alloys in three distinct categories: — 

Bronze alloys. 

Brass alloys. • ■*. « 

White alloys. 

Bronze alloys are employed by the constructors of 
machinery wherever certain conditions of tenacity, 
wear, hardness, and resistance to friction are required. 
The following are extensively used: — 

Bronze for pumps, pillow blocks, nuts &c: — 

Copper ........ , 88 

Tin . , . . . . . . . 12 

100 

The same, but harder: — * 

Copper 90 

Tin 10 



100 

These bronzes are employed in the government shops 
and other large works. An addition of from 1 to 4 
parts of zinc is allowed in certain cases. 

Alloys for blocks of connecting rods and collars for 
eccentrics: — - 

* We should suppose that the proportion of tin being smaller, 
this alloy would be softer than the preceding. — Trans. 



24:8 PRACTICAL GUILE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Copper ... 83 Copper . . 83 

Tin 15 Tin . . . 15 

Zinc ... 2 Zinc . . . 1.5 

Lead . . 0.5 

100 ■ 

100.0 

Or— 

Copper . . 84 Copper 84 

Tin ... 14 Tin ... 14 

Zinc ... 1.5 Zinc ... 2 

Lead . . . 0.5 

100 

100.0 

if the alloy is desired slightly softer and more mal- 
leable. 

The following alloys for journals of locomotive driving 
axles are employed by English makers : — 

Copper ........ 74 

Tin 9.5 

Zinc 9.5 

Lead ......... 7 

100.0 

Others are satisfied with— - 

Copper ...... 80 85.25 

Tin .18 12.75 

Zinc ....... 2 2 

100 100.00 

Alloys for blocks with collars of connecting rods, which 
require a milder and more malleable metal : — 

Copper 82 

Tin ......... 16 

Zinc 2 

100 
Bronze for pistons :■— 

Copper ........ 89.75 

Tin ........ 2.25 

Zinc 8 

100.00 



ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 249 

Alloy for locomotive axle journals : — 

Copper . . . . . ... . 80 

Tin 18 

Zinc . . . . . . = . . . 2 

100 

Or— 

Copper . : . . .-."'. . . . 79 

Tin 18 

Zino . . .' . .' .'."... 2.5 

Lead . . . . . . . .[ , 0.5 

100.0 

Alloy for journals of cranes, ivhiches, &c. y as required 
by the Northern Railway of France for the apparatus 
of its fixed stock: — .... 

Copper . " . " * " . . . " . . . 82 
Tin . . . . . . . ; . . 18 

100 

Alloy for journals of wagons employed by the same 
company ; — ....... 

Copper . . . . . . ^ . 86 

Tin . . . ' . ■ . . . . . 14 

100 

We see that all these bronzes have very much the 
same composition. The proportion of copper is rarely 
below b0 per cent., and that of zinc ranges between 2 
and 3 per cent. 

A slight variation in the proportions of the alloy 
may be noticed in practice. This explains why we 
have indicated the principal combinations in daily use, 
although several of them differ very little from each 
other. For the same reason we shall notice the fol- 
lowing alloys : — 



250 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Alloy for locomotive whistles: — ■ 

I. A clear sound, for passenger engines — 

Copper ......... 80 

Tin ......... 18 

Antimony ....... 2 

100 

II. A deeper pitch, for merchandise machines — 

Copper . 81 

Tin ......... 17 

Antimony 2 

100 
Mild alloy for pumps, clappers or valves, and stop- 
cocks : — 

Copper ........ 88 

Tin 10 

Zinc 1.75 

Lead ........ 0.25 

100.00 

Or— 

Copper ......... 88 

Tin ......... 10 

Zinc ......... 2 

100 

Bronze for ball valves and pieces to be brazed: — 

Copper ......... 87 

Tin ......... 12 

Antimony ........ 1 

100 
Alloy for cleaning plugs: — 

Copper 98 

Tin 2 

100 

This composition may be forged like pure copper, 
for which it is a substitute. The addition of tin ren- 
ders the casting more easy and sound. 



ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 251 

Hard alloy for bearings of merchandise and ballast 
wagons: — 

Copper ... . . . . . 78 

Tin 20 

Zinc 2 

100 

The next composition has been tried for the same 
purpose, but without advantage: — 

Cast iron ........ 70 

Copper .25 

Zinc ......... 5 

100 

The following alloys are employed at the important 
works of Seraing for Belgian locomotives. Their 
composition is very nearly that of the corresponding 
alloys which we have already mentioned. 

Bronze for journals of locomotive driving axles: — 

Copper 86 

Tin ......... 14 

100 

Copper 89 

Tin ........ . 8 

Zinc 3 

100 

Bronze for blocks of side valve connecting rods: — 

Copper 85.25 

Tin 12.75 

Zinc 2.00 

100.00 
Bronze for regulators :— 

Copper 86.82 

Tin 12.38 

Zinc 0.80 

100.00 



252 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS 

Bronze for stuffing boxes : — 

Copper 90.25 

Tin 3.50 

Zinc \ \ ' . . V _ . ; . , . . 6.25 

100.00 
Bronze for pistons: — 

Copper 89 

Tin 2.5 

Zino . . . . 8.5 

100.0 

The alloys of brass are employed in mechanical con- 
structions when the resistance of the metal is not ex- 
posed to very great strains, and for economical or or- 
namental purposes. 

The brasses for machinery generally have a compo- 
sition ranging from 20 to 35 per cent, of zinc, and from 
80 to 65 per cent, of copper. With less than 20 parts 
of zinc, the alloy becomes red, and may be applied to 
some particular purposes; but it is no longer to be 
considered as brass. With more than 35 parts of zinc, 
the alloy is harsh, brittle, and whitish; and, although 
it may be employed for certain common uses, it is no 
longer a brass for mechanical purposes. 

The brass compounds most generally employed in 
the arts are:— 

Brass for turners:— 

Copper * 61.6 

Zinc 35.3 

Tin . . . . . . . . . 0.5 

Lead . " . . >', ' • • • > • 2.5 

99.9 

Or the three following compositions, presenting various 

shades : — 

No. 1.— Copper 79.5 

Zinc 20 

Lead * 0.5 

100.0 



ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 253 

No. 2. — Copper . . . . . . . 74.5 

Zinc ....... 25 

Lead 0.5 

100.0 

No. 3.— Copper 66.5 

Zinc . S3 

Lead 0.5 

100.0 

The brass employed in the French navy, and in the 
Ecoles des Arts et Metiers^ is generally made as fol- 
lows : — 

Copper ......... 65.80 

Zir.c . 31.80 

Tin 0.25 

Lead 2.S0 

100.65 

This alloy, when polished, has a pleasing greenish- 
yellow cgIof, and is quite malleable. It is especially 
employed for large pieces of machinery. 

The brass for small pieces of machinery is of another 
composition, as follows : — 

Copper . . . . . . . . .76 

Zinc . 24 

Lead 0.5 

100.5 
Brass for thin pieces, hinges, &c.z — 

Copper • • .85 

Zinc 15 

Lead 1 

101 

Several English railways have employed for the 
journal boxes of locomotive and wagon axles the Fen- 
Urn alloys, which are intermediate between the bronzes 
and the brasses. Alloy No. 1 has given quite good 
results. 
22 



254: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

No. 1.— Copper 56 

Zinc 28 

Tin 16 

100 

This compound appears to resist friction well with- 
out much heating, and its specific gravity is below that 
of the ordinary bronzes. It corresponds to the com- 
bination made by Margraffin his experiments on the 
alloys of copper, tin, and zinc, and which was made of 
copper 100, tin 50, and zinc 25 parts. The metal ob- 
tained by this chemist was of a yellowish-white color, 
with an irregular grain, very hard, although quite 
easily filed, but without any malleability. 

No. 2. — Copper . 5.5 

Zinc . • 80.0 

Tin . 14.5 

100.0 

This alloy is more advantageous than the preceding 
as regards economy and lightness. It has been em- 
ployed not only for journals which, it has been said, 
required but little oiling, but also for many kinds of 
pieces submitted to friction, stuffing-boxes, valves, slide 
bars, &c. 

These alloys, notwithstanding their qualities, which 
appear to have been exaggerated, are difficult to make. 
They are not directly made in one operation, but as 
follows : The pure copper is melted in a crucible, to 
which is added a brass composed of copper 70, and 
zinc 30, and then the tin. When all is melted and 
well stirred, it is cast into ingots, which constitute 
hard metal. 

For producing the definitive alloy the zinc is melted 
in a crucible, and the hard metal, previously melted 
in another crucible, is poured into it. It is thoroughly 
mixed, and a new proportion of tin may be added, ac- 
cording to the degree of hardness or softness required. 



ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 255 

Before casting, the metal is again stirred. The alloy, 
especially during the melting of the zinc, ought to be 
covered with a thick layer of charcoal dust, in order 
to avoid the loss by volatilization or oxidation. 

The Fenton alloys, and all similar compounds, ap- 
pear to be, as antifriction metals, intermediate between 
the bronzes and the white metals. The latter have for 
a certain length of time been much employed by con- 
structors who regarded them as very economical in 
first cost and in lubricating principles. 

The white alloys have been experimented upon es- 
pecially for lining the journal boxes of locomotive and 
wagon axles; but we believe that everywhere, after 
having tried the bronzes and the white alloys in com- 
parison, the former have been found more advanta- 
geous, as they last longer and are not so easily scratched 
by the dust as the white alloys. 

Mr. Nozo, the skilful engineer of the repair shops 
of the Northern Railroad, has published in the Bulletins 
de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils the results of his ex- 
periments on antifriction metals, and has condemned 
the white metals, even those which had been the most 
extolled, such as GraftorHs antifriction metal, Vaucher's 
metal, Detourbefs metal &c. The conclusions of Mr. 
Nozo are : — 

That the white metals, whether for whole journals 
or their linings, may be advantageously employed in 
machinery revolving with a small velocity, or with an 
average velocity and small strain ; but that they are 
not suited to the rolling stock of railroads in which 
the strains and the velocity are such as to rapidly wear 
all the metals which are not hard enough to resist an 
energetic friction. 

We will now mention a few of the white alloys at 
present in use : — 

No. 1. White alloy for lining journal boxes, collars, 
pilloiv blocks, &c: — ■ 



256 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Copper ......... 4 

Tin 96 

Antimony ........ 8 

108 

12 parts of copper are melted, to which are added 
36 parts of tin, then 24 parts of antimony, and lastly 
36 parts of tin. As soon as the copper is mehed the 
temperature is lowered in order to prevent the oxidi- 
zation of the tin and antimony, and the surface of the 
bath is protected from the contact of the air. The first 
composition, made as aforesaid, is employed for the 
definitive alloy, which is made of 50 parts of the first 
alloy and 100 parts of tin. 

The pieces of machinery which require only a lining- 
are luted with clay, and the melted alloy is poured into 
its proper place, with enough metal to compensate for 
the shrinkage. 

No. 2. White alloy for small journals, and when the 
friction is not very great : — 

Copper 9 

Tin . . . . 73 

Antimony . . . . . . . .18 

100 

This alloy may be polished with dry materials, and 
wears well. It would be more economical if a small 
proportion of lead were added, but its resistance and 
durability would be impaired. 

No. 3. White alloy for bearings, made on the same 
principles as the preceding ones: — 

Copper . 1 

Tin . .50 

Antimony ......... 5 

56 

This alloy is more economical and has a more greasy 



ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 257 

touch than compositions No. 1 and No. 2. It is very 
good for machines which are not overworked. 

No. 4. White alloy to be cast directly in journal 
boxes : — 

Lead .......... 32 

Zinc 18 

Antimony ......... 50 

100 

No. 5. Soft alloy for pillow blocks: — - 

Lead 85 

Antimony ......... 15 

100 

This alloy, which may also be cast directly in its 
place, becomes heated with difficulty, and is said to re- 
sist well a rapid friction. 

A similar but more complete alloy is VaucheYs alloy. 
Tt has been extensively employed for lining the journal 
boxes of carriage and wagon axles, but is now nearly 
forgotten. Its composition is: — 

Zinc ......... 75 

Tin 18 

Lead ......... 4.5 

Antimony . ... . . . . . 2.5 

100.0 

The zinc is melted first, then the tin and the lead 
are added. The antimony, which requires a greater 
heat, is melted separately and poured the last into the 
bath of zinc, tin, and lead. 

This melted alloy is run through small venfe or 
apertures, left at the upper part of the axle boxes; and 
small discs of sheet-iron at both ends of these boxes 
prevent the metal from escaping, In order to leave 
room for the lubricating material two or three turns 
of a thick ribbon are wound around the middle of the 

22* 



258 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

axle journal, and therefore the alloy does not reach 
these parts. 

Yaucher's metal, which does not seem to us to pos- 
sess any special qualities beyond the majority of the 
antifriction white metals, has been more or less imitated. 
Is it possible to admit patent rights on alloys? Among 
the imitations we have already cited are Detourbet 
and Grafton's metals, and we may add the alloys of 
Goldsmith and of Dewrance, the latter being composed 
of 4 parts of copper, 8 of antimony, and 6 of tin. All 
these alloys are neither worse nor better. 

A few years ago the antifriction metals of Morries- 
Stirling and of Muntz were extensively employed in 
England, and had in their composition a certain pro- 
portion of wrought or cast-iron, besides copper, tin, and 
zinc. These alloys were very irregular in their com- 
position, and we do not believe that they have been 
employed in the French foundries, except in an experi- 
mental way. 

The alloys prepared by Mr. Stirling, and tried in 
the arsenals of Woolwich, Portsmouth, and Chatham, 
had a resistance to flexion much greater than that of 
ordinary bronzes. Thus, the bronze made at Woolwich, 
in the following proportions, corresponding to various 
uses:— 

Copper ....... 20 

Tin ......... 2 

Zinc .,,..... 1 

23 parts 

Copper »»,.-, 6 7 8 10 

Tin . Ill 1 

have shown an average resistance of 11.66 tons per 
square inch, while the resistance of the corresponding 
Stirling alloys was 16.42 tons on an average. 

Again, bars one inch square and three feet long 
were placed upon supports 2 feet 3 inches apart. A 



SOLDERS. 259 

load placed in their middle produced a deflection of 
73.44 with the bronze of Portsmouth (copper 10, tin 1) ; 
while with the Stirling metal the deflection was only 
16.79. 

But notwithstanding these results the Stirling metal, 
which is difficult to obtain in a sound and homogene- 
ous state, did not succeed. 

Before Mr. Stirling's patent another metal, known 
as Fazie metal, from the name of its inventor, was 
patented in England, and composed of wrought-iron, 
cast-iron, and brass. These alloys were claimed to be 
more tenacious and to wear better than either of the 
component metals taken singly. The bronze or brass 
and the iron and cast-iron were melted separately, then 
mixed, and the stirring continued all the time, even 
when being poured out. 

Karsten repeated these experiments by mixing with 
cast-iron a small proportion of copper, which had the 
effect of rendering the mixture less easily oxidized, 
but nothing has been gained from these experiments 
for ordinary practice in foundries. 



XIII. 
SOLDERS. 

We shall mention two kinds of solders : — ■ 

1. The solders made by the fusion of the metal itself, 
without any other metals. These solders are possible 
with the majority of metals, even the refractory ones, 
cast-iron, for instance. We have spoken in one of 
our works of the processes of the Autogenous solders, 
but which do not find their place here, the subject 
being alloys. 

2. The solders made upon a metal with another 
metal, or by an alloy applied to the surfaces which are 
to be united. 



260 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

In the latter case the metal or the alloy must be 
more fusible than the metal to be soldered, and have 
for it a powerful chemical affinity. 

In general the soldering is the more perfect as the 
point of fusion of the metal to be soldered and that of 
the soldering metal or alloy approach each other. 

When the parts to be soldered and the solder may 
be brought to an incipient, or even a complete fusion, 
the maximum of resistance will be obtained, the solder 
having formed a true alloy with the soldered metal. 

A strong or hard solder is employed for metals diffi- 
cult to melt, and which, being soldered, have to resist 
the action of the heat. The soft solders, with a base 
of lead and tin, are much more fusible than the metals 
to be united, and are employed when great solidity is 
not required, and when they are not subjected to the 
action of heat. 

For making copper solders the copper is melted in 
a crucible, and then the zinc, previously melted in 
another crucible, is added. The whole is thoroughly 
stirred, and when the alloy is at the proper temperature, 
it is poured from a certain height upon a bundle of 
birch twigs kept wet and agitated at the surface of a 
tub of water. The solder is thus obtained in the shape 
of fine grains having an irregular crystallization. 

When this solder is not sufficiently fine or regular it 
is broken in a cast-iron mortar, and passed through a 
sieve. 

The manufacturers of solder generally prefer to cast 
the hard solder into ingot moulds instead of using 
the above process, which is good enough for shops. 
The cooling is prevented as much as possible in order 
to develop the crystallization, which helps the subse- 
quent operations of crushing and sifting. 

The solders most generally employed in the arts 
are: — 



SOLDERS. 261 

Solders for Iron. 
Pure granulated copper, or— 

Copper 67 

Zinc 33 

100 

Or:— 

Copper 60 

Zinc ......... 40 

100 

The last two alloys, which may be replaced by a 
powdered brass holding from 33 to 40 per cent, of 
zinc, are also employed for small pieces of iron and 
copper. 

Solders for pure copper and brass. 

Hard Solder for Tubes of Pure Copper. 

Copper 3 

Zinc ......... 1 



Or:— 

Copper . . . 7 

Zinc .......... 3 

Tin .......... 2 

12 

Or, a brass containing 70 parts of copper to 30 of zinc ; 
or 75 of copper to 25 of zinc. 

Middling hard solder, more fusible than ordinary 
brass : — 

Scraps from the metal to be soldered ... 4 
Zinc 1 

5 

The proportions generally admitted in the French 
navy yards are : — 



2d2 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Hard Solder for Small and Thin Pieces. 

Pure copper 86.5 

Zinc 9.5 

Tin 4. 

100.0 

This solder is a light yellow, with fine and quite 
regular grains similar to filings. It will become oxi- 
dized without melting, unless it is kept in the middle 
of the fire and thus melted rapidly. 

The same alloy, but coarser, may be employed for 
soldering large pieces. 

Middling Hard Solder for Small Pieces of Brass. 

ssr £}*«■ • »•« 

Zinc ....... 18.5 

Tin 12. 

100.0 

Middling Hard Solder for Tubes of Brass, or of Thin 

Copper. 

Copper 70 ) R 

*Tin 30 |Krass //.5 

Zinc ...... 17.5 

Tin 5. 

100.0 

Middling Hard Solder for Solder inn the ends of Brass 
Tubes together, or to Flanges. 

nZ 1 lo}*™* ™ 

Zinc 20.5 

Tin 2. 

100.0 

* The name of cuivrejaune or laiton (literally yellow copper, or 
brass), given by the author, implies the presence of zinc, instead of 
tin, in its composition. Although we retain the word tin in the 
foregoing and following alloys marked with the asterisk, we strongly 
incline to believe that it should be zinc. — Tkans. 



SOLDERS. 263 

Middling Hard Solder for uniting Brass Tubes along 
their lengths, and is to be preferred to the former com- 
pounds when the soldered portions are to be hammered 
afterwards : — 

Copper 70 \ B 

*Tin 30 |^rass . . . . . . 7/.5 

Zinc 22.5 

100.0 

Other kinds of solders for pure copper are sometimes 
employed. They are alloys of copper and lead in 
various proportions, as for instance : — 

Copper . . .100 Lead . . .25 

" ... 100 " ... 20 

... 100 " ... 18 

... 100 " ... 16 

These alloys are sufficiently fusible, have the color 
of copper, and may be used for brazing it, without 
borax. They are malleable, clog the file, and are quite 
serviceable as a solder. To prepare them the copper is 
melted first, then the molten lead is added to it, just 
before pouring out. These solders are granulated by 
the ordinary processes. 

SOFT SOLDEES. 

Among the soft solders to be employed with metals 
melting at a low temperature, we may notice the fol- 
lowing ones: — 



o 



So Ider for P lum hers. 



Lead . . . . . . . . 1 or 2 

Tin 11 

2 3 
Soft Solder. 

Lead ......... 1 

Tin "'.... . . 2 



2t)4 PEACT1CAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Solder for Tinned Iron. 

Lead . 7 

Tin - 1 

8 

Solder for Pewter. 

Lead 1 

Tin 2 



This solder, which is employed in England by the 
manufacturers of pewter wares, is the same as that 
known in France under the name of soft solder. 

Alloy for Sealing up Iron in Stone. 

Lead 2 

Zinc 1 



This alloy is more resisting, and adheres better than 
pure lead. 

It has been tried, in certain cases, to substitute the 
zinc solders, or amalgams of zinc, for the ordinary soft 
solders. When soldering with zinc, this metal is cut 
into thin strips and put with a flux between the edges 
of the metal to be soldered ; or a granular amalgam 
of zinc is employed with an appropriate flux. The 
surfaces to be united are heated up until the zinc melts, 
and sometimes to redness, according to the metals em- 
ployed. The fluxes are generally borax or sal ammo- 
niac. 

Soft solders of bismuth, tin, and lead are sometimes 
used, and their compositions will be found in the 
chapter on fusible alloys. 

Solders for jewelry, silver or gold wares, ornaments, 
&c. 

We employ the following solders for jewelry and 
the precious metals : — 



SOLDERS. 265 

Hard Solder for Gold. 

Gold (18 carats or Jftfo) . . . . . 18 

Silver 10 

Pure copper . . 10 

38 

This solder and the following ones are made with fine 
filings of the metals, which are melted together : — 



Gold solder called one-fourth . gold 3 alloy . 1 

" " " one-third . " 2 " 1 

one-half . " 1 " . 1 



a 



The alloy is made of 6Q per cent, of pure silver, and 
33 per cent, of copper, except for the solder " one-half," 
when the proportions are equal parts of silver and 
copper. 

Hard Solder for Silver. 

Silver . . . . . . . . . 6Q 

Copper 23 

Zinc 10 

99 

This solder is more fusible than the middling hard 
solders for copper, and is sometimes used for brazing 
brass : — 

Silver solder called one-sixth silver . . 5 . . brass ... 1 
" " one-fourth « . . 3 . . " ... 1 

" " one-third " . . 2 . . " ... 1 

In order to obtain a homogeneous product these 
solders ought to be melted several times. The metal 
is then laminated into thin bands, which are granulated 
into spangles, ready to be mixed with borax. 

If a piece of silverware is to be soldered several 
times, it is proper to employ, at the beginning, the 
richer solders, which, being less fusible, will not be 
subject to displacement by the solders of lower stand- 
ards, employed at the end of the operation. 
23 



266 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Other silver solders are employed, such as — 

Silver 2 

Bronze . . . . . . . 1 

3 parts. 

Silver 4 . . * . . 1 

Bronze ... 3 .... 1 
Arsenic . . . 0.25 .... 1 

7.25 parts. 3 parts. 

Silver 2 

Dutch gold (brass) 1 

Arsenic 0.5 

3.5 parts. 

The arsenic is added to the bath after the fusion of 
the other metals. These various solders are drawn 
out under the hammer, or laminated and then cut into 
spangles. 

Solder for Platinum. 

Pure gold, or gold with § per cent, of an alloy of 
platinum and iridium. 

Hard Solder for Aluminium Bronze. 

Gold 88.88 

Silver 4.68 

Copper ........ 6.44 

100.00 

Middling Hard Solder for Aluminium Bronze. 

Gold 54.4 

Silver 27. 

Copper 18.6 

100.0 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 267 

Soft Solder for Aluminium Bronze. 

Copper 70 \ B ]4 o 

Tin* 30 /■ Brass i4 - c} 

Gold . . . . . 14.3 

Silver 57.1 

Copper . . . . . 14.3 

100.0 

Solder for German Silver. 

Copper 8 "| 

Nickel 2 \ German silver ... 5 

Zinc 3.5 J 

Zinc ..... 4 

9 

This alloy is cast into thin plates, which are cut and 
pulverized. Its texture has a dead lustre, and is slightly 
fibrous. It is the more ductile, as the proportion of 
zinc is smaller. 

Silver solder for plated ware, employed in England : — 

Pure silver ........ 2 

Bronze 1 

3 
Amalgam of Copper. 
Copper 30 

Mercury ........ 70 

100 

XIV. 
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 

This last series comprises the alloys which we have 
not been able to classify in the preceding series. "We 
here insert all such compounds that we have picked 
up from our own works, or from treatises on alloys. 

A few of these compounds are really useful, while 
others will look very empirical. We give them as we 

* See foot note page 262. — Trans. 



268 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

find them in the works of certain authors, who have 
tried or verified them no more than we have. 
Alloys for small patterns in foundries : — 

No. 1.— Tin 7.5 

Lead 2.5 

10.0 parts. 

No. 2.— Zinc 75 

Tin 25 

100 parts. 

No. 3.— Tin 30 

Lead 70 

100 parts. 

The last of these alloys is for patterns which will 
not be in frequent use, and which may be mended, 
bent, &c. The first gives harder and stiffer patterns; 
the second is harder than tin and more tenacious than 
zinc, at the same time that it preserves a certain duc- 
tility. 

With from 15 to 20 per cent, of tin, the zinc becomes 
less brittle, and is better adapted to many useful pur- 
poses. With from 15 to 20 per cent, of tin, lead becomes 
harder and more resisting. Even from 2 to 5 per cent. 
of tin are sufficient to harden lead. On the other 
hand, a small proportion of lead renders tin more sup- 
ple, easily worked, and not so subject to cracks. 

An addition of bismuth to lead increases the hard- 
ness of the latter metal. The alloy which possesses 
the maximum of tenacity is about : 

Lead . 60 

Bismuth ........ 40 

100 
PLASTIC ALLOYS. 

The best alloys of lead, tin, and bismuth, for obtain- 
ing casts of medals, coins, &c, are comprised within 
the following proportions: — ■ 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 269 



No. L— Kraft's alloy: 



Bismuth 5 

Lead ......... 2 

Tin l 



This alloy is fusible at about 104° C. 
No. 2. — Homberg's alloy : — 

Bismuth. ......... 3 

Lead 3 

Tin . 3 

9 
This alloy is fusible at 122° C, "has nearly the ap- 
pearance of silver, and is quite hard. It is used in 
England for casts of medals. 

No. 3. — Alloy of Valentin Rose: — 

Bismuth 4 to 6 

Lead 2 2 

Tin 2 to 3 

8 toll 

This alloy melts between 100° and 130° C. 
No. 4.— Alloy of Rose (the father) : — 

Bismuth .2 

Lead . 2 

Tin 2 

6 

which melts at 93° C* 

These alloys, of which the points of fusion may be 
quite accurately determined, have been tried for tem- 
pering cutting instruments. 

The martial regulus is also employed for medals and 
objects in relief, and is composed of — • 

* It is curious to observe that the alloys Nos. 2 and 4, both made 
of equal parts of the same metals, melt at different temperatures. 
This probably depends on their homogeneousness. — Trans. 

23* 



270 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 



Antimony 7 

Iron ......... 1 



According to certain authors, the casts are sharper 
than those of cast-iron. 

The following metal, called expansion metal, pos- 
sesses the property of expanding when cooling, and is 
therefore very useful for filling small defects in me- 
tallic pieces, and for sealing and obtaining certain 
casts : — 

Lead - 6 

Antimony ........ 2 

Bismuth 1 

9 

Various compounds. 

An English author indicates the following amalgam 
for varnishing plaster casts: — 

Tin 1 

Bismuth. ......... 1 

Mercury 1 

3 

The mercury is added to the tin and bismuth already 
melted, and the whole is thoroughly stirred, in order 
to perfect the combination. The cooled amalgam is 
then pounded with the white of egg, and forms a liquid 
mass which may be applied with a brush. 

Amalgams for Silvering Glass Globes, &c. 

No. 1. — Lead (pure) ..... 1 

Tin 1 

Bismuth ...... 1 

Mercury ...... 1 

4 parts. 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 271 

No. 2.— Lead 1 

Tin 1 

Bismuth ...... 1 

Mercury ...... 2 

5 parts. 

The lead and tin are to be melted first, after which 
bismuth is added. The drosses are removed, and mer- 
cury is poured into the compound, which is perfectly 
stirred. Leaves of Dutch gold are sometimes intro- 
duced into the mixture, according to the color which it 
is required to impart to the globes. 

An alloy for tinning various utensils is made of from 
6 to 8 parts of tin, and 1 part of iron. 

We have already said that zinc has been employed 
for similar purposes. The galvanoplastic processes 
make it easy to deposit zinc, tin, lead, &c, upon iron 
or copper. We shall not linger on these applications, 
which do not belong to the subject of alloys. 

Amalgam of Cadmium and Tin for Dentists. 

Tin 2 

Cadmium ........ 1 

3 

The two metals are melted together, and the button 
obtained is filed with a rasp. The metallic powder is 
then dissolved in a large quantity of mercury, the 
excess of which is expressed through a chamois leather. 
The friable mass thus obtained is kneaded in the fingers, 
and soon becomes soft and homogeneous. This paste, 
which rapidly hardens, is employed for filling teeth, 
and is also very serviceable as a hermetic luting for 
glass instruments, &c. 

The following process, recommended by Mr. Boetger, 
is more rapid : — 

As soon as the portions of cadmium and tin have 
been melted in an iron ladle, a certain portion of hot 



272 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

mercury is added to the mass, which is pounded and 
worked in an iron mortar until it has acquired a soft 
and butter-like consistency. 

Alloy of Mr. Bibra for Small Casts. 

Bismuth 6 

Tin 3 

Lead 13 

22 

These metals are melted in a crucible or iron ladle, 
cast into ingots, and remelted before being employed. 
This alloy, which is nearly as fusible as that of Eose 
(bismuth 3, tin 1, lead 1), is harder, without being 
brittle or presenting a crystalline fracture. If the casts 
are wet with diluted nitric acid, then rinsed in water, 
and lastly rubbed with a woollen rag, the projecting 
parts become bright, while the cavities acquire the 
dark gray appearance of antique objects. Without 
acid the color of the metal is a light gray. 

The medals cast upon plaster of Paris succeed so 
well that the finest and most delicate letters or lines, 
which, on the original piece, con-Id be perceived with 
a magnifying glass only, become at once apparent to 
the naked eye. As the cost of bismuth is a great deal 
higher than that of tin, and especially that of lead, we 
may yet retain a good alloy by increasing the propor- 
tion of lead and diminishing that of bismuth. 

This alloy may be useful in the manufacture of rol- 
lers and plates for calico printing. 

The alloy of Mr. Gersnein, for making a soft mastic 
for uniting glass, chinaware, &c, becomes so hard after 
a certain lapse of time (8 to 10 hours), that it may be 
polished the same as silver or brass. 

The copper employed is that obtained by precipita- 
tion. This copper is ground with concentrated oil of 
vitriol in a porcelain mortar, and then for from 25 to 



MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 273 

35 parts of copper 65 to 70 parts in weight of mer- 
cury are gradually added. When the copper is en- 
tirely amalgamated, it is washed with boiling water, in 
order to remove the sulphuric acid, and then allowed 
to rest. This amalgam is unacted upon by the weak 
acids, alcohol, ether, or boiling water. Whenever it 
is desired to employ it as a mastic, it is always easy to 
bring it back to a soft and plastic state, by heating 
it up to about 375° C. and triturating it in a mortar 
until it has become as soft as wax. 

If, in this state, it is put between two surfaces free 
from oxides, grease, &c, it unites them so thoroughly, 
that the pieces appear as if they had never been sol- 
dered. This copper amalgam has been employed by 
some dentists for filling teeth. 

Alloy for roller scrapers: — 

Copper 81.5 

Zinc 10.5 

Tin 8. 

100.0 

This composition for the scrapers (sometimes called 
doctors, or ductors), intended to remove the surplus of 
colors from the calico-printing rollers, appears to pos- 
sess the maximum of hardness and toughness for this 
purpose. On the other hand, acids rapidly destroy the 
scrapers made of an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc. For 
many years past, a combination which will possess, at 
the same time, elasticity and softness, hardness and 
flexibility, without being sensibly attacked by chemical 
reagents, has been a desideratum. The Societe Indus- 
trielle de Mulhouse has offered a premium for such a 
discovery, which has not been yet awarded, because, 
as we believe, nothing has been invented which is 
to be preferred to the alloys made within the above 
limits. 



274 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 

Violet alloy, susceptible of a fine polish : — 

Copper 75 

Antimony 25 

100 

This compound is brittle, without well-known uses, 
and more fusible than copper. 

Amalgam for electrical machines : — 

Zinc 1 

Tin 1 

Mercury 2 

4 

This amalgam is employed, either in powder, or in- 
corporated with grease. 

Liquid for amalgamating the zinc of galvanic latte- 
ries : — 

This liquid was experimented upon by Euhmkorf. 
A few seconds of immersion are sufficient for amalga- 
mating the most worn-out zinc. It is made by dis- 
solving, with the aid of heat, 200 grammes of mercury 
in 100 grammes of aqua regia. When the solution is 
completed, 1000 grammes of hydrochloric acid are 
added to it. 

Note by the Author. — Notwithstanding the innumerable researches 
which we have made in order to give a complete description of the 
useful alloys, it is probable, and even sure, that many interesting 
combinations have escaped our attention. Therefore, we shall wel- 
come all communications and corrections on this subject, which 
our readers may have the kindness to address to us, in order thus 
to improve a future edition, if, as we hope, from the practical 
character and usefulness of a work of this kind, our book is to be 
printed again. 



TABLES 

SHOWING THE 

RELATIVE VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS 
AND MEASURES, &c. 



Measures of Length, 




Millimetre 


== 


0.03937 


inch. 


Centimetre 


== 


0.393708 


u 


Decimetre 


= 


3.937079 


inches. 


Metre 


= 


39.37079 


« 


it 


= 


3.2808992 


feet. 


u 


= 


1:093633 


yard. 


Decametre 


= 


32.808992 


feet. 


Hectometre 


= 


328.08992 


« 


Kilometre 


= 


3280.8992 


(< 


<( 


= 


1093.633 


yards. 


Myriametre 




10936.33 


u 


it 


= 


6.2138 


miles. 


Inch (g 1 ^- yard) 


= 


2.539954 


centimetres. 


Foot (i yard) 


= 


3.0479449 


decimetres. 


Yard 


= 


0.91438348 metre. 


Fathom (2 yards) 


= 


1.82876696 


; " 


Pole or perch (5^ yards) = 


5.029109 


metres. 


Furlong (220 yards) 


= 


201.16437 


it 


Mile (1760 yards) 


= 


1609.3149 


tt 


Nautical mile 


== 


1852 


« 



276 



VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 



Superficial Measures. 



Square millimetre 

" centimetre 
" decimetre 



square inch. 



metre or centiare = 



Are 

« 

Hectare 
<< 

Square inch 

" foot 

" yard 

" rod or perch 
Rood (1210 sq. yards) 
Acre (4840 sq. yards) 



0.00155 
0.155006 
15.50059 
0.107643 
1550.05989 
10.764299 
1.196033 
1076.4299 
119.6033 
0.098845 
11960.3326 
2.471143 
645.109201 
6.451367 
9.289968 
0.836097 
25.291939 
10.116775 
0.404671 



" inches. 

" foot. 

" inches. 

" feet. 

" yard 

" feet. 

" yards. 
rood. 

square yards, 
acres, 
square millimetres. 

" centimetres 

" decimetres. 

" metre. 

" metres, 
ares, 
hectare. 



Measures of Capacity. 



Cubic millimetre = 

" centimetre or millilitre = 
" centimetres or centilitre = 
" " decilitre = 



0.000061027 cubic inch. 
0.061027 " " 



10 " 
100 " 
1000 " 



litre = 



Decalitre 



Hectolitre = 

" = 

Cubic metre or stere or kilolitre = 
<( <{ <( 



Myrialitre 



0.61027 
6.102705 
61.0270515 
= 1.760773 
== 0.2200967 
= 610.270515 
= 2.2009668 
= 3.531658 
= 22.009668 
1.30802 
35.3165807 
353.165807 



" inches. 
« « 

imp'l pint. 
" gal'n. 
cubic inches, 
imp. gal'ns. 
cubic feet. 
imp. gal'ns. 
cubic yard. 
" feet. 





w: 


ibi 


c inch 


it 


foot 


a 


yard 



AND MEASURES, ETC. 



277 



= 16.386176 cubic centimetres. 
— 28.315312 " decimetres. 

= 0.764513422 " metre. 



American Measures. 

Winchester or U.S. gallon (231 cub. in.) = 3.785209 litres. 

" " bushel(2150.42cub.in.) = 35.23719 " 

Chaldron (57.25 cubic feet) = 1621.085 " 



British Imperial Measures. 



litre. 



Gill = 0.141983 

Pint (£ gallon) = 0.567932 

Quart (£ gallon) = 1.135864 u 
Imperial gallon (277.2738 cub. in.) = 4.54345797 litres. 

Peck (2 gallons) = 9.0869159 " 

Bushel (8 gallons) = 36.347664 " 

Sack (3 bushels) = 1.09043 

Quarter (8 bushels) = 2.907813 

Chaldron (12 sacks) = 13.08516 



hectolitre, 
hectolitres. 



Milligramme 
Centigramme 
Decigramme 
Gramme 



Decagramme 

u 

Hectogramme 

u 

Kilogramme 

u 

Myriagramme 



Weights. 

0.015438395 troy 

0.15438395 " 

1.5438395 " 
= 15.438395 " 

0.643 

0.0321633 

0.0352889 
= 154.38395 

5.64 

3.21633 

3.52889 

2.6803 

2.205486 
= 26.803 
= 22.05486 



" grams, 
pennyweight, 
oz. troy, 
oz. avoirdupois, 
troy grains, 
drachms avoirdupois, 
oz. troy, 
oz. avoirdupois, 
lbs. troy, 
lbs. avoirdupois, 
lbs. troy, 
lbs. avoirdupois. 



Quintal metrique = 100 kilog. = 220.5486 lbs. avoirdupois. 
Tonne = 1000 kilog. = 2205.486 " " 

24 3 



278 



VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 



Different authors give tlie following values for the gramme 
Gramme = 15.44402 troy grains. 
" = 15.44242 " 

= 15.4402 
" = 15.433159 

" == 15.43234874 " 



AVOIRDUPOIS. 



Long ton = 20 cwt. = 2240 lbs. = 1015.649 
Short ton (2000 lbs.) = 906.8296 

Hundred weight (112 lbs.) = 

Quarter (28 lbs.) = 

Pound == 16 oz. = 7000 grs. = 

Ounce = 16 dr'ms. = 437.5 grs. = 
Drachm = 27.344 grains = 



kilogrammes. 



50.78245 
12.6956144 
453.4148 grammes. 
28.3375 " 

1.77108 gramme. 



TROY (precious metals). 
Pound = 12 oz. == 5760 grs. = 373.096 



Ounce = 20 dwt. = 480 grs. 
Pennyweight = 24 grs. 
Grain 



== 31.0913 
= 1.55457 
= 0.064773 



grammes. 



gramme. 



APOTHECARIES' (pharmacy). 

Ounce = 8 drachms = 480 grs. = 31.0913 gramme. 
Drachm = 3 scruples = 60 grs. = 3.8869 " 

Scruple = 20 grs. = 1.29546 gramme. 



CARAT WEIGHT FOR DIAMONDS. 

1 carat = 4 carat grains = 64 carat parts. 

= 3.2 troy grains. 

= 3.273 " 

= 0.207264 gramme 

= 0.212 

= 0.205 " 

Great diversity in value. 
4 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 279 

Proposed Symbols for Abbreviations. 



M— myria — 10000 

K— kilo — 1000 

H— hecto — 100 

D— deca — 10 

Unit — 1 

d— deci — 0.1 

c — centi — 0.01 

m— milli — 0.001 



Mm 
Km 
Hm 
Dm 
metre — m 
dm 
cm 
mm 



Mg 


Ml 


Kg 


Kl 


Hg 


HI 


Dg 


Dl 


gramme — g 


litre— 1 


dg 


dl 


eg 


cl 


mg 


ml 



Ha 
Da 
are — a 
da 
ca 



Km = Kilometre. HI = Hectolitre. eg = centigramme. 
c. cm = cm 3 = cubic centimetre, dm 2 = sq. dm = square deci- 
metre. Kgm = Kilogrammetre. Kg = Kilogramme degree. 



Celsius or Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit. 


Eeaumur. 





15° 


+ 5° 


— 12° 


— 


10 


+ 14 


— 8 


— 


5 


+ 23 


— 4 




melting 


+ 32 


ice 


+ 


5 


+ 41 


+ 4 


+ 


10 


+ 50 


+ 8 


+ 


15 


+ 59 


+ 12 


4- 


20 


+ 68 


+ 16 


■f 


25 


+ 77 


+ 20 


+ 


30 


+ 86 


+ 24 


+ 


35 


+ 95 


+ 28 


+ 


40 


+104 


+ 32 


+ 


45 


+ 113 


+ 36 


+ 


50 


+122 


+ 40 


+ 


55 


+ 131 


+ 44 


+ 


60 


+140 


+ 48 


+ 


65 


+149 


+ 52 


+ 


70 


+ 158 


+ 56 


+ 75 


+ 167 


+ 60 


+ 


80 


+176 


+ 64 


+ 


85 


+185 


+ 68 


+ 


90 


+194 


+ 72 


+ 


95 


+203 


+ 76 


+100 boiling 


+212 


water +80 


+200 


+ 392 


+ 160 


+300 


+572 


+240 


+400 


+752 


+320 


+500 


+932 


+400 



280 



VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 









r 


c. = 


= 1° 


.8 Ft. 


= 


90 

"FT 


Ft. = 


= 0°.S E 




_ 40 T> 






1° 


c. 


X 


9 
7T 


= 1° 


Ft. 


1° 


Ft. 


X 


5 

9 


1° C. 


1° 


R. 


xf 


=1° 


Ft. 


1° 


c. 


X 


4 

5 


= 1° 


R. 


1° 


Ft. 


X 


4 

9 


1° R. 


1° 


R. 


xf 


=1° 


C. 



Calorie (French) = unit of heat -» 

i m j > English. 

= kilogramme degree J ° 

It is the quantity of heat necessary to raise 1° C. the tempera- 
ture of 1 kilogramme of distilled water. 

Kilogrammetre = Kgm = the power necessary to raise 1 kilo- 
gramme, 1 metre high, in one second. It is equal to y 1 - of a 
French horse power. An English horse power = 550 foot pounds, 
while a French horse power = 542.7 foot pounds. 

Ready-made Calculations. 



No. 

of 

units 



Inches to 

centimetres. 



Feet to 
metres. 



Yards to 
metres. 



Miles to 
Kilometres. 



Millimetre 
to inches. 



10 



2.53995 
5.0799 
7.6199 
10.1598 
12.6998 
15.2397 
17.7797 
20.3196 
22.8596 
25.3995 



0.3047945 
0.6095890 
0.9143835 
1.2197680 
1.5239724 
1.8287669 
2.1335614 
2.4383559 
2.7431504 
3.0479450 



0.91438348 
1.82876696 
2.74315044 
3.65753392 
4.57191740 
5.48630088 
6.40068436 
7.31506784 
8.22945132 
9.14383480 



1.6093 
3.2186 

4.8279 

6.4373 

8.0466 

9.6559 

11.2652 

12.8745 

14.4838 

16.0930 



0.03937079 
0.07874158 
0.11811237 
0.15748316 
0.19685395 
0.23622474 
0.27559553 
0.31496632 
0.35433711 
0.39370790 



No. 


Centimetres 


Metres to 


Metres to 


Kilometres 


Square inches 


of 


to inches. 


feet. 


yards. 


to miles. 


to square 


units. 










centimetres. 


1 


0.3937079 


3.2808992 


1.093633 


0.6213824 


6.45136 


2 


0.7874158 


6.5617984 


2.187266 


1.2427648 


12.90272 


3 


1.1811237 


9.8426976 


3.280899 


1.8641472 


19.35408 


4 


1.5748316 


13.1235968 


4.374532 


2.4855296 


25.80544 


5 


1.9685395 


16.4044960 


5.468165 


3.1089120 


32.25680 


6 


2.3622474 |l9.6853952 


6.561798 


3.7282944 


38.70816 


7 


2.7559553 J22.9662944 


7.655431 


4.3496768 


45.15952 


8 


3J496632 |26.2471936 


8.749064 


4.9710592 


51.61088 


9 


3.5433711 J29.5280928 


9.842697 


5.5924416 


58.06224 


10 


3.9370790 


32.8089920 


10.936330 


6.2138240 


64.51360 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 



281 



No. 


Square feet to 


Sq. yards to 


Acres to 


Square 


Sq. metres 


of 


sq. metres. 


sq. metres. 


hectares. 


centimetres 


to sq. feet. 


units. 








to sq. inches. 




1 


0.0929 


0.836097 


0.404671 


0.155 


10.7643 


2 


0.1858 


1.672194 


0.809342 


0.310 


21.5286 


3 


0.2787 


2.508291 


1.204013 


0.465 


32.2929 


4 


0.3716 


3.344388 


1.618684 


0.620 


43.0572 


5 


0.4645 


4.180485 


2.023355 


0.775 


53.8215 


6 


0.5574 


5.016582 


2.428026 


0.930 


64.5858 


7 


0.6503 


5.852679 


2.832697 


1.085 


75.3501 


8 


0.7432 


6.688776 


3.237368 


1.240 


86.1144 


9 


0.8361 


7.524873 


3.642039 


1.395 


96.8787 


10 


0.9290 


8.360970 


4.046710 


1.550 


107.6430 



No. 


Square metres 


Hectares 


Cubic inches 


Cubic feet to 


Cubic yards 


of 


to sq. yards. 


to acres. 


to cubic 


cubic metres. 


to cubic 


units. 






centimetres. 




metres. 


1 


1.196033 


2.471143 


16.3855 


0.02831 


0.76451 


2 


2.392066 


4.942286 


32.7710 


0.05662 


1.52902 


3 


3.588099 


7.413429 


49.1565 


0.08494 


2.29354 


4 


4.784132 


9.884572 


65.5420 


0.11325 


3.05805 


5 


5.980165 


12.355715 


81.9275 


0.14157 


3.82257 


6 


7.176198 


14.826858 


98.3130 


0.16988 


4.58708 


7 


8.372231 


17.298001 


114.6985 


0.19819 


5.35159 


8 


9.568264 


19.769144 


131,0840 


0.22651 


6.11611 


9 


10.764297 


22.240287 


147.4695 


0.25482 


6.88062 


10 


11.960330 


24.711430 


163.8550 


0.28315 


7.64513 



No. 


Cubic 


Litres to 


Hectolitres to 


Cubic metres 


Cubic metres 


of 


centimetres to 


cubic inches. 


cubic feet. 


to cubic feet. 


to cubic 


units. 


cubic inches. 








yards. 


1 


0.06102 


61.02705 


3.5317 


35.31659 


1.30802 


2 


0.12205 


122.05410 


7.0634 


70.63318 


2.61604 


3 


0.18308 


183.08115 


10.5951 


105.94977 


3.92406 


4 


0.24411 


244.10820 


14.1268 


141.26636 


5.23208 


5 


0.30514 


305.13525 


17.6585 


176.58295 


6.54010 


6 


0.36617 


366.16230 


21.1902 


211.89954 


7.84812 


7 


0.42720 


427.18935 


24.7219 


247.21613 


9.15614 


8 


0.48823 


488.21640 


28.2536 


282.53272 


10.46416 


9 


0.54926 


549.24345 


31.7853 


317.84931 


11.77218 


10 


0.61027 


610.27050 


35.3166 


353.16590 


13.08020 



24* 



282 



FKENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS, ETC. 



No. 


Grains 


Ounces avoir. 


Ounces troy 


Pounds avoir. 


Pounds troy 


of 


to grammes. 


to grammes. 


to grammes. 


to 


to 


units. 








kilogrammes. 


kilogrammes. 


1 


0.064773 


28.3375 


31.0913 


0.4534148 


0.373096 


2 


0.129546 


56.6750 


62.1826 


0.9068296 


0.746192 


3 


0.194319 


85.0125 


93.2739 


1.3602444 


1.119288 


4 


0.259092 


113.3500 


124.3652 


1.8136592 


1.492384 


5 


0.323865 


141.6871 


155.4565 


2.2670740 


1.865480 


6 


0.38S638 


170.0250 


186.5478 


2.7204888 


2.238576 


7 


0.453411 


198.3625 


217.6391 


3.1739036 


2.611672 


8 


0.518184 


226.7000 


248.7304 


3.6273184 


2.984768 


9 


0.582957 


255.0375 


279.8217 


*4.0807332 


3.357864 


10 


0.647730 


283.3750 


310.9130 


4.5341480 


3.730960 





Pounds per | 






No. 


Long tons to square inch to Grammes to 


Grammes to 


Grammes to 


of 


tonnes of 1000 kilogrammes 


grains. 


ounces avoir. 


ounces troy. 


units. 


kilog. 


per square 
centimetre. 








1 


1.015649 


0.0702774 


15.438395 


0.0352889 


0.0321633 


2 


2.031298 


0.1405548 


30.876790 


0.0705778 


0.0643266 


3 


3.046947 


0.2108322 


46.315185 


0.1058667 


0.0964899 


4 


4.062596 


0.2811096 


61.753580 


0.1411556 


0.1286532 


5 


5.078245 


0.3513870 


77.191975 


0.1764445 


0.1608165 


6 


6.093894 0.4216644 


92.630370 


0.2117334 


0.1929798 


7 


7.109543 0.4919418 


108.068765 


0.2470223 


0.2251431 


8 


8.125192 0.5622192 


123.507160 


0.2823112 


0.2573064 


9 


9.140841 ! 0.6324966 


138.945555 


0.3176001 


0.2894697 


10 


10.156490 i 0.7027740 154.383950 


0.3528890 


0.3216330 









Metric tonne.* 


Kilog. per 


Kilog. per 


No. 


Kilogrammes 


Kilogrammes 


of 1000 kilog 


square milli- 


square centi- 


of 


to pounds 


to pounds 


to iong tons of 


metre to 


metre to 


units. 


avoirdupois. 


troy. 


2240 pounds. 


pounds per 
square inch. 


pounds per 
square inch. 


1 


2.205486 


2.6803 


0.9845919 


1422.52 


14.22526 


2 


4.410972 


5.3606 


1.9691838 


2845.05 


28.45052 


3 


6.616458 


8.0409 


2.9537757 


4267.57 


42.67578 


4 


8.821944 


10.7212 


3.9383676 


5690.10 


56.90104 


5 


11.027430 


13.4015 


4.9229595 


7112.63 


71.12630 


6 


13.232916 


16.0818 


5.9075514 


8535.15 


85.35156 


7 


15.438402 


18.7621 


6.8921433 


9957.68 


99.57682 


8 


17.643888 


21.4424 


7.8767352 


11380.20 


113.80208 


9 


19.849374 


24.1227 


8.8613271 


12802.73 


128.02734 


10 


22.054860 


26.8030 


9.8459190 


14225.28 


142.25260 



INDEX. 



Alfemde, 228 

Algiers metal, 231, 238 

Alloy for keys of flutes, &c, 239 

for hammering plates and fine 
wires, 190 

for silvering glass globes, 245 

fusible by friction, 245 

of Muntz, 202 

to determine the proportion 
of the component metals 
in, 52 
Alloys, characteristics and quali- 
ties of, 58, 63, 66, 69, 72, 
79, 85, 87, 93, 99, 101, 102, 
107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 
116, 124, 125, 129 

coefficient of elasticity by vi- 
bration, 29 

cohesion of, 29 

for bells, musical instruments, 
&c, 207 

for coinage, 177 

for jewelry, gold and silver 
wares, Britannia ware, &c, 
218 

for machinery, 247 

for ordnance, arms, projec- 
tiles, &c, 182 

for philosophical and optical 
instruments, 212 

for rolling and wire drawing, 
189 

for stopcocks, 239 

for type, engraving plates, 
&c, 203 

fusible, points of fusion of, 244 

maximum of extension, 29 

miscellaneous, 267 



Alloys — 

of copper and lead, 85 

of copper and tin, 72 

of copper, tin, and zinc, 87 

of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, 

93 
of copper and zinc, 79 
of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, 

55 
of iron and copper, 98 
of iron and lead, 104 
of iron and tin, 102 
of iron and zinc, 100 
of iron with copper, zinc, tin, 

and lead, 97 
of metals most used in the 

arts, 54 
of metals rarely used in the 

arts, 143 
of the metals of secondary 
importance in the arts, 106 
of the precious metals, 122 
of tin and lead, 63 
of tin and zinc, 58 
of tin, zinc, and lead, 66 
of zinc and lead, 69 
physical and chemical proper- 
ties of, 30 
specific gravity of, 29 
the specific gravity of which 
is greater than the mean of 
the component metals, 32 
the specific gravity of which 
is less than the mean of 
the component metals, 32 
used in the arts, 1 70 
very white and malleable, 
223 



284 



INDEX. 



Alumina, 138 

in steel, 138 
Aluminium, 123 

and copper, specific gravities 
of compounds of, 142 

and its alloys, 137 

bronze, 141 

bronze, properties of, 142 

bronze, solders for, 266, 267 

bronze, uses of, 143 

chemical properties of, 25 

first isolated, 139 

properties of, 139 

qualities of, 25 
Aluminum or aluminium, 24 
Amalgam for dentists, 271 

for electrical machines, 274 

for varnishing plaster casts, 
270 

Mackenzie's, 121 

of copper, 267 

of gold, 127 

of lead, bismuth, and mer- 
cury, 245 
Amalgams, 22, 119 

for silvering glass globes, 270 

of platinum, 136 

of silver, 132 

of zinc, 264 

use of in gilding, 127 
Analyses of coinage of various 

countries, 182 
Ancient alloys for weapons, 186 

bronzes, 173 

coinage, 180, 186 
Anti-friction metals, 247 

metal, G-rafton's, 255 
Antimony, 20 

amalgams of, 120 

and arsenic, alloys of, 112 

and bismuth, alloys of, 108 

and copper, alloys of, 109 

and gold, alloys of, 126 

and iron, alloys of, 111 

and lead, alloys of, 110 

and nickel, alloys of, 112 

and tin, alloys of, 109 

and platinum, alloys of, 136 



Antimony — 

and silver, alloys of, 131 
and zinc, alloys of, 109 
effectof, on the crystallization 

of iron, 112 
in fused cast iron, 112 
oxidation of, 110 
hardness imparted by, 111 
qualities of, 20 
quaternary alloys with, 1 13 
ternary alloys with, 113 
useful alloys with, 112 

Appold alloys, 246 

Argentan of Shefiield, 223 

Arms, alloys for, 182 

Arsenic, 21 

amalgams of, 121 
and antimony, alloys of, 112 
and bismuth, alloys of, 108 
and copper, alloys of, 117 
and gold, alloys of, 127 
and iron, alloys of, 119 
and lead, alloys of, 118 
and nickel, alloys of, 116 
and platinum, alloys of, 136 
and silver, alloys of, 131 
and tin, alloys of, 118 
and zinc, alloys of, 118 
effect on gold, 127 
qualities of, 21 

Arsenical cobalt, 150 

Arsenides of lead, 118 

Ashberry metal, 233 

Attica, bronze coins of, 181 

Ball valves, alloys for, 250 
Bath metal, 222 
Bearings, alloys for, 251, 256 
Belgium, coinage of, 179 
Bells, alloys for, 207 

English analyses of, 210 
in France, 211 
quality of, 210 
Berthier, M., experiments, 115, 
120, 124, 132, 134, 136, 145, 
147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 162, 
164, 166. 
Bibra's alloy, 272 



INDEX. 



285 



Binary alloys, 40 

Bismuth, 19 

added to. tin increases hard- 
ness, 107 
and antimony, alloys of, 108 
and arsenic, alloys of, 108 
and copper, alloys of, 106 
and gold, alloys of, 126 
and iron, alloys of, 108 
and lead, alloys of, 107, 244 
and mercury, 120 
and nickel, alloys of, 108 
and silver, alloys of, 131 
and tin, alloys of, 106, 244 
and zinc, alloys of, 106 
facility of, for crystallizing, 19 
for refining silver, 131 
lead, and zinc, alloys of, 244 
solidifies. 107 
tin, and lead, soft solders of, 

264 
qualities of, 19 

Blocks of side valve, bronze for, 
251 

Blue gold, 218 

Bobierre, Mr, experiment on 
ships' sbeathings, 198-202 

Boetger's process, 271 

Brass, 56 

for turners, 252 

hard solder for, 262, 263 

Jemmapes, 197 

malleable, 190 

of second quality, 191 

or bronze for mountings of 

arms, 187 
plates, bronze for, 197 

Brasses, 252, 253, 254 

Brasque. use of, 50 

Brazed, alloys for pieces to be, 250 

Breant, M., experiments of, 135 

Britannia metals, 231, 232 
metals, qualities of, 234 
ware, alloys for, 218 

British coinage, 178 

Brittleness imparted by antimony. 
114 

Bronzes, 56, 249, 251 



Bronze alloys, 51 
for medals, 76 
for pistons, 252 
for pumps, pillow blocks, nuts, 

ftc, 247 
for regulators, 251 
for sheathing, 197 
for stuffing-boxes, 252 
made at Woolwich, 258 
of Column of July, Paris, 172 
of Column of Yendome, 97, 

172 
of Genius and Liberty, 176 
of statue of Henry IV., 175 
of statue of Moliere, 177 
of statue of Napoleon 1833, 

176 
of statue of Bousseau, 176 
of statue of d'Assas at Vigan, 

176 
Bronzes for gilding, 174 
of art, 171 

of statues in Paris, 173 
of brothers Keller, 97, 1 72 
of the Greeks and Romans, 

173 
Roman, for statues, 97 
Buttons, alloys for, 241 
metal for, 119 

Cadmium, 152 

Cast iron, re-melting, 45 

tinning, 104 
Casts, alloy for, 245 

Bibra's alloy for, 272 

English alloys for, 227 
Casting, 48 
Characteristics of alloys, 58, 63, 

66, 69, 72, 79, 85, 87, 93, 
. 101, 102, 107, 109, 110, 

111, 114, 116, 124, 125, 129 
Charcoal dust, 48 
Chinese gongs, analyses of, 211 

maillechort, 226 

mirrors, 213, 214 

pack-fong, 114, 22 i 

white copper, 224 
Chromium and iron, 149 



286 



INDEX. 



Chromium — 

and its alloys, 148 
and steel, 149 

Clappers, alloys for, 250 

Cobalt and copper, 151 
and iron, 151 
and its alloys, 150 
and tin, 151 

Cobaltine, 150 

Coefficient of elasticity of alloys 
by vibration, 29 

Cohesion of alloys, 29 

Coinage, alloys for, 177 
ancient, 180 

of various countries, analyses 
of, 182 

Color of texture of an alloy, 58 

Column of July, bronze of, 172 

Column Vendome, bronze of, 97, 
172 

Common jewelry gold, 220 

Complex alloys, 41 

Component metals in an alloy, to 
determine, 52 

Composition of alloys, 36 

Conductive power of metals, for 
electricity, 26 

power of metals for heat, 26 

Connecting rods, alloys for, 248 

Cooling of alloys, 38, 39 

Copper, 15 

alloys for ships' sheathings, 

198 
and aluminium, specific gra- 
" vities of compounds of, 142 
amalgam of, 267 
and antimony, alloys of, 109 
and arsenic, alloys of, 117 
and bismuth, alloys of, 106 
and gold, alloys of, 122 
and iron, alloys of, 98 
and its alloys, 45, 47, 48, 49 
and lead, alloys of, 85 
and mercury, amalgams of, 

120 
and nickel, alloys of, 114 
and platinum, alloys of, 133 
and silver, alloys of, 129 



Copper — 

and tin, alloys of, 50, 72 

and zinc, alloys of, 41, 48, 50, 
79 

for rolling, alloys of, 191 

metals with which it may be 
alloyed, 15 

remelting, 45 

solders, 260, 261, 262, 263 

tin, and zinc, alloys of, 87 

tin, zinc, and lead, alloys of, 
93 

tinning, 104 

works, reverberatory fur- 
naces in, 52 

zinc, tin, and lead, alloys of, 
55 
Crocoide, 148 
Crucibles, use of, 46 
Crysocale, 221 
Crystallization, 39 
Cupolas, 49 

waste with, 51 
Cutlery, metals for, 236 

of steel and platinum, 135 
Cuivre jaune, 262 
Cymbals, metal for, 211 

Darcet's alloys, 97, 242, 243 

Darcet on gilding bronze, 174 

Dead leaf gold, 218 

Dentists, amalgam for, 271 

Despretz, Mr., alloy for mirrors, 
214 

Detourbat's metal, 255 

Deville, M- St. Claire, 139 

Dewrance, alloy of, 258 

Didot, MM., stereotype plates, 
204 

Dipping, yellow metal for, 220, 
221 

Direct method, alloys made by, 45 

DorS, 133 

Ductile alloy of gold and plati- 
num, 235 

Ductility of alloys, 31 

relative, of metals, 26 

Dumas, M., 116 



INDEX. 



287 



Dumas — 

on platinum alloy, 135 
Eccentrics, alloys for collars of, 

247 
Elasticity, coefficient of, of metals, 
27 
of alloys, 34 
Electricity and heat conductive 
power of metals, 26 
in metallurgic operations in 
the future, 185 
Electrical machines, alloy for, 274 
Electrum, 218, 227 
Engestrum tutania, 230 
England, base gold in, 219 
English bells, analyses of, 210 
metal, 233 
tutania, 227 
English and French weights and 

measures, 275 
Engraving plates, alloys for, 203 
Expansion metal, 270 
Experiments of the author, 56 
Extension, maximum of, of alloys, 
29 

Fahlun brilliants, 217 
Faraday and Stodart's experi- 
ments, 115, 116, 131, 135, 166, 
167, 215, 216 
Fazi6 metal, 259 
Fenton's alloy, 93 
Fire, regulation of, 47 
Fracture, resistance of metals to, 

27 
France, bells in, 211 
French coinage, 177, 178 

officers, experiments on al- 
loys for military uses, 183 
standards of gold, 218 
standards for silver, 219 
French and English weights and 

measures, 275 
Friction, alloy fusible by, 245 
Fusible alloys, 242 

alloys, tables of points of fu- 
sion of, 244 
alloy for casts, very, 245 



Fusible — 

alloys, various, 246 

by friction, alloy, 245 

combinations, 243 

teaspoons, alloy for, 246 
Fusibility of alloys, 30 

of alloys of bismuth and tin, 
107 
Fusion, 56 

duration of, 51 

temperature of the metals, 
26 

Galvanic batteries, liquid for amal- 
gamating, 274 
Germany, coinage of, 179 
German maillechort, 226 

silver, 224, 227 

silver, solder for, 267 

tutania, 229 
Generalities on the metals, 25 
Gersnein's alloy, 272 
Gilding, metal for, 221 

similor for, 197 

use of amalgams in, 127 
Gilt, silver, 128 

Globes, alloy for silvering glass, 
245 

silvering glass, 121 
Gold, 22, 123 

acids which do and those 
which do not attack it, 23 

action of, mercury on, 127 

alloys of, 23 

amalgam of, 127 

and antimony, alloys of, 126 

and arsenic, alloys of, 127 

and bismuth, alloys of, 126 

combines with other metals, 
129 

false, in England, 220 

feuille mort, 218 

French standards of, 218 

hard solder for, 265 

Manheim, 221 

qualities of, 22 

vert d'eau, 218 

and copper, alloys of, 122 



288 



INDEX. 



Gold— 

and iron, alloys of, 125 
and lead, alloys of, 124 
and mercury, affinity of, 127 
and nickel, alloys of, 126 
and platinum, alloys of, 128 
and silver, alloys of, 127 
and silver wares, alloys for, 

218 
and tin, alloys of, 124 
and zinc, alloys of, 124 

Goldsmith's, alloy of, 258 

Gongs and cymbals, metal for, 211 

Grafton's anti-frictiou metal, 255 

Gray cobalt, 150 

Gray gold, 125 

Green gold, 128, 218 

Greeks and Romans, bronzes of, 
173 

Hammering, alloy for, 190 
Hardness of alloys, 31 

relative, of metals, 26 
Hard alloy for bearings, 251 
Hard solder for gold, 265 

solders, 260, 261, 262 

solder for silver, 265 

tin, 239 

white metal, English, 240 
Herve's experiments, 109, 111, 

112 
Homberg's alloy, 269 

Imitation silver, 240 

Industrial metals, 54 

Ingot moulds, 51 

Iridium, 163 

Iron, 18 

alloys of, 97 

and antimony, alloys of, 111 

and arsenic, alloys of, 119 

and bismuth, alloys of, 108 

and copper, alloys of, 98 

and gold, alloys of, 125 

and lead, alloys of, 104 

and mercury, 120 

and nickel, alloys of, 115 

and platinum, alloys of, 134 



Iron — 

and silver, alloys of, 13 

and tin, alloys of, 102 

and wolfram, experiments on, 

157 
and zinc, alloys of, 100 
does not alloy well, 19 
easily oxidized, 18 
experiments on, 157 
ores containing zinc, 102 
solders for, 261 

Italy, coinage of, 179 

Jemmapes brass, 197 
Jewelry, alloys for, 218 

gold, 220 

solder for, 264, 265 
Journals, alloys for, 248, 249, 251, 
255, 256, 267 

Karmarsch, Mr., on britannia 

metals, 234 
Karsten, 116, 125 
Keller, Bros., alloy for ordnance, 
182 
bronzes of, 172 
Keller's statuary bronze, 97 
Keys of flutes, &c, alloy for, 239 
Krafft's alloy, 269 
Kustitien metal for tinning, 240 

Laboulaye, Ch., on type metal, 203 
on alloys, 28 

Large type, &c, metals for, 206 

Latent heat of alloys, 35 

Lead, 17 

acids which attack it, 18 
elasticity, 189 
tin, and zinc, alloys of, 66 
and arsenic, alloys of, 118 
and antimony, alloys of, 110 
and bismuth, alloys of, 187, 

244 
and copper, alloys of, 85 
and gold, alloys of, 124 
and iron, alloys of, 104 
and mercury, amalgam of, 120 



IKDEX. 



289 



Lead — 

and nickel, alloys of, 115 
and platinum, alloys of, 184 
and silver, alloys of. 130 
and tin, alloys of, 63 
and zinc, alloys of, 69 
copper, tin, and zinc, alloys 

"of, 93 
bismuth and mercury, amal- 
gam of. 245 
shot. 188' 
qualities of, 17 

Leguen, Maj., experiments with 
tungsten, 154 

Lewis, Mr., experiments, 136 

Liquation, 38, 89, 51 

Locomotives, alloys for, 248, 249, 
251 

Lustre, alloys producing, 113 
caused by antimony, 112 

Machinery, alloys for. 247 
Maillechort, 225, 226. 227 

for rolling, 194. 227 

for spoons and forks, 227 
Mackenzie's amalgam, 121 
Manganese and its alloys, 145 

in manufacture of steel, 147 

■with pig-iron, 146 
Manheim gold, 221 
Martial regulus, 269 
Maixmum of extension of alloys, 

Measures and weights, English 
and French, 275 

Dg and mixing the metals, 
precautions to be taken, 
43, 44, 47 
order of, 43, 46 
the metals, 41, 42. 43 
Mercury, 21 

absorbs lead, 120 

amalgams of, 119 

and bismuth, 120 

and copper, amalgams of, 120 

and iron. - 

and lead, amalgam of, 120 

and tin, amalgam of. 120 

25 



Mercury — 

and zinc, amalgam of, 120 
fraudulent amalgam, 121 
qualities of, 21 

Metal argentin, 231 
for gilding, 221 

Metallic mirrors, 113, 213, 214 

Metalloid, 144' 

Metals, classes of, 13 

co-efficient of elastic: 
commonly used, observations 

on, 13 
conductive powers of heat, 26 
for cutlery, 236 
for dipping, 220, 221 
generalities, tables and data 

on the, 25, 26, 27 
importance of, when mixed, 14 
most used, alloys of, 54 
of secondary importance, al- 
loys of, 106 
temperature of, fusion of, 26 
relative ductility of 2 
relative hardness of, 26 
resistance of, to fracture, 27 
specific gravity, 26, 27 
tenacity of, 26 

Meteoric iron, 115 
! Middling hard solders, 261, 262, 
- I 

fer, 231 
' Mirrors, alloy for, 236 
metallic, 113 

metallic alloys for, 213, 214, 
216 
Bring, 121 
telescopic, alloys for, 119 

Mock gold or false gold, 235 

Mock platinum, 240 

Molybdenum, 162 

Mosaic gold, 121 

Mountings of arms, bronze or 
brasE, for. 187 

Muntz, Mr., alloys of - - 

Muschenbroeck's experiments on 

E [ I 

Musical instruments, alloys for, 
207 



290 



INDEX. 



Music, metal for plates, 205 

Nanterre, aluminium works at, 139 

Nickel, 20, 114 

and antimony, alloys of, 112 
and arsenic, alloys of, 116 
and bismuth, alloys of, 108 
and copper, alloys of, 114 
and gold, alloys of, 126 
and iron, alloys of, 115 
and lead, alloys of, 115 
and platinum, alloys of, 136 
and silver, alloys of, 131 
and steel, combination of, 116 
and tin, alloys of, 114 
and zinc, alloys of, 114 
alloys of, 114, 116 
amalgams of, 121 
in meteoric iron, 115 
qualities of, 20 

Nozo, M., 255 

Nuts, bronze for, 247 

Observations on metals commonly 

used, 13 
Old alloys, 49 

alloys, use of, 44 

brass, waste of, 51 
One operation, alloys made in, 42 
Optical instruments, alloys for, 

119, 212 
Order of melting metals, 43, 46 
Ordnance, alloys for, 182 

of various counties, composi- 
tion of, 183 
Osmium, 163 
Oxidation, 46 

of alloys, 35 

of antimony, 100 
Oxides of iron and zinc, 101 

Packfund or packfong, 114, 223 
Pale gold, 128 

Palladium and its alloys, 165 
Paris maillechort, 226 
Pewter, 113, 238 

plate, 233 

solder for, 264 



Philosophical instruments, alloys 
for, 212 

Pillow blocks, bi'onze for, 247 
soft alloy for, 257 

Pinchbeck, 222 

Pin wire, alloy for, 191 

Pistons, alloys for, 248 
bronze for, 252 

Plastic alloys, 268 

Plate pewter, 233 

Plated ware, silver solder for, 267 

Plating, similor for, 197 

Platinum, acids which dissolve it, 
24 
amalgams of, 136 
and antimony, alloys of, 136 
and arsenic, alloys of, 136 
and bismuth, alloys of, 135 
and copper, alloys of, 133 
and gold, alloys of, 128 
and iron, alloys of, 134 
and lead, alloys of, 134 
and nickel, alloys of, 136 
and silver, alloys of, 132 
and tin, alloys of, 134 
and zinc, alloys of, 134 
effect on steel, 135 
mock, 240 
or platina, 24 
solders, 266 
qualities of, 24 

Plugs, alloy for cleaning, 250 

Plumbers, solder for, 263 

Precautions in melting and mixing, 
43, 44 

Precious metals, alloys of, 122 

Preparation and composition of 
alloys, 36 

Polishing steel, alloy for, 241 

Potassium, 168 

and zinc in amalgams of iron, 
120 

Pouring out, 47 

Prince's metal, 240 

Prince Robert's metal, 222 

Printing type, metal for, 205 

Prinsep, Mr., on alloys of gold and 
platinum, 235 



INDEX. 



291 



Product, examination of, 56 
Projectiles, alloys for, 182 
Properties, chemical and physical, 

of alloys, 30 
Proportions of the metals, 56 
Pumps, alloys for, 250 

bronze for, 247 
Pyrites, white magnetic, 114 

Qualities of alloys, 58, 63, 66, 69, 
72, 79, 85, 87, 93, 99,101, 102, 
107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 116, 
124, 125, 129 

Quartenary alloys, 45 

Queen's metal, 113, 230 

Quicksilver, 21 

Red gold, 218 

similor, 222 
Regnault, M.> 85, 145, 150, 163, 

165 
Regulators, bronze for, 251 
Regulus, 126 

martial, 269 

of Venus, 109 
Remelted alloys, 46 
Remelting metals, 45 
Researches of the author, 56 
Reverberatory furnace, 47, 49 

furnaces, waste with, 51 
Rhodium, 166 
Ring gold, 220 

Rolling and wire drawing, alloys 
for, 189 

maillechort for, 197 
Romans, bronzes of, 173 

bronzes of, for statues, 97 
Roman coins, 180 
Rose, M. M., alloys of, 242, 269 
Rouen, bell at, 209 
Rudberg, Mr., 35 
Ruhmkorf, 274 
Ruolz alloys, 224 
Ruthenium, 167 

Saxon coins, 181 

Sealing up iron, solder for, 264 



Scrapers, alloy for roller, 273 

Scorias, 49 

Scorification, 44 

Sheathing, bronze for, 197 
copper alloys for, 198 
analyses of, 199 

Sheet iron dipped in zinc, 101 
tinning, 103 

Sheffield and Birmingham, alloys 
of, 223 

Shot lead, 119, 188 

Siemens, C. W., on effect of tungs- 
ten on steel, 162 

Silicious sand, 48 

Silver, 23 

alloys of, 23, 133 
and antimony, alloys of, 131 
and arsenic, alloys of, 131 
and bismuth, alloys of, 131 
and copper, alloj^s of, 129 
and gold, alloys of, 127 
and iron, alloys of, 131 
and lead, alloys of, 130 
and nickel, alloys of, 131 
and platinum, alloys of, 132 
and tin, alloys of, 130 
and zinc, alloys of, 130 
amalgams of, 132 
French standards for, 219 
hard solders for, 265 
imitation, 240 
solders, 265, 266 
qualities of, 23 

Silvering glass globes, 121 

glass globes, alloy for, 245 
glass globes, amalgams for, 

270 
mirrors, 121 

Similor for gilding, 197 
or tombac, 222 

Small patterns, alloys for, 268 

Smaltine, 150 

Sodium, 168 

Soft alloy for pillow blocks, 257 
solders, 260, 263, 264 

Solders, 259-267 
zinc, 264 



292 



INDEX. 



Spanish tutania, 230 
Specific gravity of a substance, to 
determine, 53 

gravity of alloys, 29, 31 

gravity of metals, 26, 27 

heat of alloys, 35 
Speculum metals, 212, 215 
Spelter, 16 
Spoons and forks, maillechort for, 

227 
Statuary bronze, 41 
Strange, Col., experiments with 

aluminium bronze, 142 
Steel and nickel, combination of, 
116 

effect of platinum on, 135 
Stereotypes, metal for, 205 
Sterling, Mr., alloys of, 258 

experiments of, 155 
Stopcocks, alloys for, 239, 250 
Strong or hard solder, 265 
Stuffing boxes, bronze for, 252 
Swiss coinage, 179 

Table of points of fusion of fusible 
alloys, 244 

Tables and data on the metals, 25 

Teaspoons, fusible alloy for, 216 

Telescopes, mirrors for, 215 

Telescopic mirrors, alloys for, 119 

Tellurium, 168 

Tenacity of alloys, 31 
of metals, 26 

Ternary alloys, 45 

Thiebaut, Victor, bronzes used by, 
177 

Tin, 15 

acids which decompose it, 16 
and antimony, alloys of, 109 
and bismuth, alloys of, 106, 

244 
and copper, alloys of, 72 
and gold, alloys of, 124 
and iron, alloys of, 102 
and lead, alloys of, 63 
and mercury, amalgam of, 120 
and nickle, alloys of, 114 
and platinum, alloys of, 134 



Tin— 

and silver, alloys of, 130 

and zinc, alloys of, 58 

copper and zinc, alloys of, 
87 

hard, 239 

smell and savor of, 16 

solidifies, 107 

zinc, and lead, alloys of, 66 

zinc, lead, and copper, alloys 
of, 93 
Tinned iron, solder for, 264 

sheet-iron, 103 
Tinning, alloy for, 271 

cast iron, 104 

copper, 104 

kustitien, metal for, 240 
Titanium, 152 
Tombac, 117, 240 

or similor, 222 
Tonca, Mr., alloy of, 228 
Tungsten, 154 

and iron, 116, 154 

and steel, 154 

effect of, on steel, 162 
Tutenag, 227 
Type, alloys for, 113, 203 

metal, 119 

metal, requirements of, 110 

Uranium, 153 

Valves, alloys for, 250 
Vaucher's metal, 255, 257 
Varnishing plaster casts, amalgam 

for, 270 
Vendome column, bronze of, 97 
Violet alloy, 274 
Vogel's alloy for polishing steel, 

241 
Volatilization of zinc, 50 

Waste in alloys, 51 
of brass, 51 
with zinc in excess, 61 
Weights and measures, English 

and French, 275 
Well alloyed metal, to obtain, 49 



INDEX. 



293 



Whistles, alloys for locomotive, 

250 
White alloys, 236 

copper, 117, 119, 240 

gold, 218 

metals, 229, 230, 240, 255, 

256, 257 
packfong, 223 
similor, 222 
Whitened copper, 222 
Wire, drawing alloys for, 189 
Wobler, 139 
Wolfram, 153 

alloys for bronze for ordnance, 

161 
and iron, 116 
Wollaston, Dr., 165, 166 
Woolwich, bronze made at, 258 
Wootz or Indian steel, 138, 149, 

167 
Worst alloys, 76 

Wortheim's experiments on alloys, 
27, 33, 34 

Yellow gold, 128 

metal for dipping, 220, 221 



Yellow gold — • 

or antique gold, 218 

Zinc, 16 

alloys of, 50 
amalgams of, 264 
and antimony, alloys of, 109 
and arsenic, alloys of, 118 
and bismuth, alloys of, 106 
and copper, alloys of, 48, 79 
and gold, alloys of, 124 
and iron, alloys of, 100 
and lead, alloys of, 69 
and mercury, amalgam of, 120 
and nickel, alloys of, 114 
and platinum, alloys of, 134 
and silver, alloys of, 130 
and tin, alloys of, 58 
attacked by acids, 17 
behavior of, 100 
lead, copper, and tin, alloys 

of, 93 
oxidized by air, 17 
qualities of, 17 
solders, 264 

tin, and copper, alloys of, 87 
tin, and lead, alloys of, 66 



CATALOGUE 

OF 

PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 

PUBLISHED BY 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 

3STo- 406 *W\A. L INT TJ T STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 



Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, 
free of postage, at the publication price. 
23= My New akd Enlarged Catalogue, S2 pages Svo., with full descriptions 
of Books, will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will favor me 
with, his address. 



A RMENGAUD, AMOUROUX, AND JOHNSON.— THE PRACTICAL 
-* 1 DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, AND 
MACHINIST'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION: 
Forming a complete course of Mechanical Engineering and 
Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud 
the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and 
Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger and Amou- 
roux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged, with addi- 
tional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the 
most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. 
By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C E., Editor of "The 
Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel 
plates and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4 to. . $10 00 

A SLOT.— A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR COACH PAINTERS. 

Translated from the French of M. Arlot, Coaeh Painter j late 
Master Painter for eleven years with M. Ehrler, Coach Manufac- 
turer, Paris. With important American additions . . $1 25 

A RROWSMITH.— PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION : 

A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are 
Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Prepara- 
tory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on 
Walls; the Various Cements and Pastes adapted to the Seve- 
ral Purposes of the Trade; Observations and Directions for 
the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, &c. By James 
Arkowsmith. 12mo., cloth §1 2$ 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



■DilED.— THE AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, AND MANA- 
B GER'S AND CARDER'S GUIDE : 

A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimen- 
sions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calcula- 
tions, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements : together 
with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and 
numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of 
the late Robert H. Baird. 12mo. . . . $1 50 

"DAKER.— LONG-SPAN RAILWAY BRIDGES : 

Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and 
Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type 
Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Ta- 
bles. By B. Baker. 12mo $2 00 

•pAKEWELL— A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY— PRACTICAL AND 
D THEORETICAL: 

By F. C. Bakewell, Inventor of the Copying Telegraph. Se- 
cond Edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated by nume- 
rous engravings. 12mo. Cloth . . . . $2 00 

■DEANS— A TREATISE ON RAILROAD CURVES AND THE L0- 
D CATION OF RAILROADS : 

By E. W. Beans, C. E. 12mo. (In press.) 

-pLENKARN.— PRACTICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF WORKS EXE- 
•° CUTED IN ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL AND MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERING, AKD IN ROAD MAKING AND SEWER- 
ING: 

To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements 
and Reports. By John Blenkarn. Illustrated by fifteen 
large folding plates. 8vo $9 00 

-DLINN.— A PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION FOR TIN, 
- SHEET-IRON, AND COPPER-PLATE WORKERS : 

Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns 
used by Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical 
Geometry ; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the 
Weight of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Cir- 
cumferences of Circles ; Japans, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, 
Compositions, etc. etc. By Lerot J. Blinn, Master Me- 
chanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2 50 



UTAH 3AKBY BA3B1 3 CATAIOGUB. 3 

BA7Z.-35ATLBLE WUBXEI I A1AAAL1 
" :v.:i:::;:::::::.---:^----- - - i; Xir.'r: ii ge_e- 

ral. (hem "Attz. Waiting, rod ~ tttz : Veneering of 
Marble ; Mosaic ; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, 
Btneeofl, Safaris, Receipts, Secrets, eta etft Trandaied 
from tie Frerc-k by M. L. Booth. Wiffi an Appendix con- 
cerning American Marbles. 12mo., eloth 9i 

"DOOTH A2TD XORFTT.— THE Z5CYCX0PZDIA OF CHE3C5T2T 
■^ PRACTICAL A2TD THZOEZTICAL : 

E^:ri.±::t5 iTtAtitAr- :: tie Arts. VetAAzz- :.' .:.e: -'. z~ 
jec":>v. MeAAze. tri FAimTT -J ..Arizs 7. 2::rz. 
-I -- Refiner in Ae United States Mint, Professor of 

Aiilei nerristrr At tie FrtzAAt- Atstitit te. et:.. assist*: : t 
riirszzi V:n::. ttAt A ■■ . ietr:A I Ai: : l-TAns eto. 

- -.-. .•- .- e ^.-— - ;-- i-i 

.^-7t:t eT.;__. _ -- - _ --- -.•--- -^ - - 

: - ~;— ;-:iTii-T-ter .__h-t = r . 

E;—::::z— -iriiTHiH atafaa:al valuation ?t^3:- 
zlzvjTs aia: 7sz :r :jal :~as 

E- £-- ~ 1 --.-:~z, I. '.---.--.:: I ~:A — ::I errrsv- 
^z e"V: **» 

A Series of Bales and Tables for tie e : fin* neexs e : 
Bj Thomas Bote. 12mo- *-'-'- 

-nocKMASTXE — tzz ZLZXEZTTS 1 1 s-zczA3ncAi ?zts::: 

■D t- -/. : , 5- :221iirx s. : i:e ^tt.ie-tit-tle« J :-e-tLert S:r.::. 
:: Aires : CerrAei TeiAer A 5::er:e :t tie _'ezirtner: :: 

~ . et:e iiA At: : -z z titter it. .zezttsttT t 7=;:= :t ire 

F.tI- riere A ?re:ett:rs: it_- Tte _e:ttter tr zeti 
til Il^rAs ::-:l;ti:;-:tt:;lst:t:e _tts:ttte] 
-.t renter:- ezzriTtzs. At :ze -A line. . % 1 5f 



TLLOCZ— TZZ AXZZITAtv A_-JA>_ E-— DEE 

^Aes -t lesirzs. I lt-E tt- ?te:if:-i.ti:rt5 :: 11 A " :■: 



B 

_r _ e:t.e :: letter — : 
:iz. YerAAl:r. Irzizr ze 7 it- tt.'. It. ' - : t 



. By Jons Btzlix>cx, Architect, Crril Engineer, Meehani- 

1 :1 ; ~ _-.-- : 7_t AzAtrerts :: tttt:t itt: 
2^1iirz et:. Arstrttei 7 75 erpiArtzs. At :ze -A 

_ s : :.- 



4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

"D T JLLOCK. — THE RUDIMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND 

U BUILDING: 

For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machin- 
ists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, 
author of "The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by 
250 engravings. In one volume 8vo. . . . $8 50 

"DURGH.— PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MA- 

n RINE ENGINES : 

Showing in-detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low 
Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together 
with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. 
Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text. 

$21 00 

■DURGH.— PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF 

D MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MA- 
RINE PURPOSES. 
By N. P. Burgh, Engineer. 12mo. . . . $2 00 

TVJRGH.— THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED : 
By N. P. Burgh, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery," 
"Practical Illusti'ations of Land and Marine Engines," "A 
Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Ma- 
rine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated. 
12mo $2 00 

TDYRN.— THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER : 

Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of 
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making 
Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Ginger- 
pop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted 
to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. La 
Fayette Btrn, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo. $1 25 

■pYR?x._THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER : 

Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Prac- 
tical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification ; 
including all of the most recent improvements in distilling 
apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the nume- 
rous vegetables, fruits, etc. ; directions for the distillation and 
preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spiritu- 
ous and other compounds, etc. etc. ; all of which is so simpli- 
fied that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distil- 
lers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage 
in the art of distilling By M. La Fayette Byrn, M. D. 
With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 



I 



HEXRT CARET B AIRE'S CATALOGUE 5 

DIBITE,— POCKET BOOK FOE RAILROAD A2JD CIVIL EVCfe 
■^ KEESS: 

mtauring Sew, Exaet, and Concise Methods for Laying 

Railroad Carres, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the 
Staking out of work; LeTelling; the Calculation of Cut- 
I gs; Embankments: Earth-work. etc. By lite a Bream, 
Illustrated L8mo,, fall bound $175 

-_ . I— THE HANDBOOK: EOS IHE ARTISAN, KECHAXIC, 
AST) EB0IHSEB : 
By Ouveb Brass. DbisBEaied by 183 Wood Engi avin gs Bro. 

1 .5 00 

"DTP.:™— THE ESSZITTIAL ELZZIZZ"S 01 PRACTICAL 2£L- 
41 CHAjTI< 

For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work. 
By Oltvek BraxE. Illustrated by Xumeroui Wood Engrav- 
ings, 12mo. . . . . . . . . $3 63 

Z;v?.:~i — :zz practical kzial-woexee's assistant: 

" . :mp rising Metallurgy Chemistry; the Arts of Working all 
Metals and Alloys 7 :: gmg ;:' h m and Steel Hardening and 
Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; 
" :rks in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the 
Ductility of (he Metals: Soldering: and the most Improved 
Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the 
Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufactu- 
ring Processes : : s Ik ::- 1 & : m . ■ . 1 ees, and from the 
Works if QoUzapSel Bergeron, Leopold, Plnmier, 1'apier, and 
afhers, J 7 >edfekBtksi A New Revised and improved 
I .".-..: l. with Additions by lit In Seoffern, MLB "..:.-..'.:- 
Wia Fairbairn 7 3. S . and. James Sapiei With Five Hun- 
dred and. Hmefy-tvrc Engravings; Blostraimg e~ery Branch 
of :. ::. In one volume, 8w : .'— pages . $7 GC 

■ZT2.:"Z— IHZ PBACTICAL M00EZ BALCULATOB 

For the Engineej Mechanic Manametarei of Engine "Vork, 

8 1 LA . - .:-. '.-- Miner, : 1 ." .' .. - ighJ By )u 1;. Brass 

1 volume :-: nearly 600 pages . . . . $4 50 

PKW RflKR— gAOTAL 0E WOOL CASVTJT5 Wj li Practical II- 

hseica : ion e : r Lea ra erj :: the .-_ -- : . Selected <k 

By Whxias I:::::-: C: With an >::.:.::;n by 
laasv/raras fewm F.S.A etc With 121 D . -;... -• lis 

- I ; . . 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



B 



AIRD.— PROTECTION OF HOME LABOR AND HOME PRO- 
DUCTIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSPERITY OF THE 
AMERICAN FARMER : 
By Henry Carey Baird. 8vo., paper . 10 

'DAIRD.— THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCERS, AND THE 

n WRONGS OF BRITISH FREE TRADE REVENUE REFORM. 

By Henry Carey Baird. (1870) .... 5 

"DAIRD.— SOME OF THE FALLACIES OF BRITISH-FREE-TRADE 

. REVENUE-REFORM. 

Two Letters to Prof. A. L. Perry, of Williams College, Mass. By 
Henry Carey Baird. (1871.) Paper .... 5 

"DAIRD .—STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES : 

An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so ar- 
ranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a spe- 
cified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By 
T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio $5 00 

•DAUERMAN.— TREATISE ON TEE METALLURGY OF IRON. 
Illustrated. 12mo $2 50 

•DICKNELL'.S VILLAGE BUILDER. 
$< 55 large plates. 4to $10 00 

"DISHOP.— A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES : 
- From 1608 to 1866 ; exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Prin- 
cipal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial 
Period to the Present Time ; By J. Leander Bishop, M. D., Ed- 
ward Yotraa, and Edwin T. Freedley. Three vols. 8vo., half 

morocco $12 00 

OX.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT AS APPLIED TO 
THE USEFUL ARTS : 

For the use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By Thomas Box, au- 
thor of "Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated by 14 plates, con- 
taining 114 figures. 12mo. . . . . . . $4 25 



B 



QABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE : 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most 
Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large 
and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong 

$5 00 
QHAPMAN,— A TREATISE ON ROPE-MAKING : 

As practised in private and public Rope-yards, with a Description 
of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the 
Trade ; Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By Robert 
Chapman. 24mo v . . . $1 50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



pRAIK.-THE PRACTICAL AMERICAN MILLWRIGHT AND 

^ MILLER. r , . _. 

Comprising the Elementary Principles of Mechanics, Me- 
chanism, and Motive Power, Hydraulics and Hydraulic 
Motors, Mill-dams, Saw Mills, Grist Mills, the Oat Meal Mill, 
the Barley Mill, Wool Carding, and Cloth Fulling and Dress- 
ing, Wind Mills, Steam Power, &c. By David Craik, Mill- 
wright. Illustrated by numerous wood engravings, and five 
folding plates. 1 vol. 8vo. . • • . $5 00 

pAMPIN.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL EN- 

^ GINEERING-o 

Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging Tools, 
Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture 
of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Ana- 
lysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. I« 
which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam 
Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Preven- 
tion ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. K, 
and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels 
for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting 
Machine By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, including 
Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and 
Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 
8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings. 

pOTiPIN.-THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TTJRNING IN WOOD, 
U IVORY, SHELL, ETC. : 

With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as maybe 
required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, 
an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By Francis Campin 
with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth . • W w 

fUPRON DE DOLE.-DTJSSATJCE.-BLTJES AND CARMINES OF 
V INDIGO, 

A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial 
Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole. 
Translated, with important additions, by Professor H .^Dc*- 
saucEc 12mo< 



§ HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

n&HEY.— THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY: 

CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE- 
SUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo. 38 

FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper 

25 

HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacture g, 

and Commercial. 8vo., paper . . . . . $1 00 

Do. do. cloth . . . $1 50 

LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
Paper $1 00 

MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's 
" Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. 1 vol. 
12mo . . . . $2 25 

MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Inter- 
ests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and 
American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo 
England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union," 
"The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review 
of the Decade 1857 — '67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol. 
8vo., cloth . $4 50 

MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Sta- 
tistical Society. 8vo., paper . . ... . 25 

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo. . . . $2 50 

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth 

$10 00 

REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857— '67. 8vo., paper 50 

RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- 
LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo 
paper ...... . . 50 

THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to 
provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- 
tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- 
sion. 8vo., paper ....... 25 

THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 
1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- 
ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 50 

THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it 
Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth $1 5G 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 



LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (1867.) 
Paper ......... 50 

REVIEW OF THE FARMERS' QUESTION. (1870.) Paper 25 

RESUMPTION! HOW IT MAY PROFITABLY BE BROUGHT 
AROUT. (1869.) 8vo., paper .... 50 

REVIEW OF THE REPORT OF HON. D. A. WELLS, Special 
Commissioner of the Revenue. (1869.) 8vo., paper 50 

SHALL WE HAVE PEACE ? Peace Financial and Peace Poli- 
tical. Letters to the President Elect. (1868.) 8vo., paper 50 

THE FINANCE MINISTER AND THE CURRENCY, AND 
THE PUBLIC DEBT. (1868.) 8vo., paper . . 50 

THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING 
HER. Letters to Hon. Schuyler Colfax. (1865.) 8vo., paper 

$1 00 

WEALTH! OF WHAT DOES IT CONSIST ? (1870.) Paper 25 

QAMTTS.— A TREATISE OH THE TEETH OF WHEELS : 

Demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the 
purposes of Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work. Trans- 
lated from the French of M. Camus. By John I. Hawkins. 
Illustrated by 40 plates. 8vo $3 00 

nOXE.— MINING LEGISLATION. 

A paper read before the Am. Social Science Association. By 
Eckley B. Coxe. Paper 20 

riOLRURN.— THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON: 

Comprising a sketch of the Gas-,works of the city, Process of 
Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By Zerah 
Colburn. 8vo., cloth " 75 

riDLBURN.— THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE: 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimat- 
ing its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construc- 
tion and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. A 
new edition. 12mo. $1 25 

pOLBURN AND MAW —THE WATER-WORKS OF LONDON : 
Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water- 
works. By Zerah Colburn and W. Maw. Reprinted from 
"Engineering." In one volume, 8vo. . . $4 00 

niGUERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION: 
** 12mo., cloth . . .' $1 25 



10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

TjIRCXS.— PERPETUAL MOTION : 

Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17th, 18th, and 
19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in 
Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent 
Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by Henry Dircks, 
C. E. Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines. 
12mo., cloth $3 50 

•ntXOff.— THE PKACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S 
^ GUIDE : 

Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels ; 
Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts ; Diameter and Strength 
of Bolts, etc. etc. By Thomas Dixon. 12mo., cloth. %\ 50 
TVJNC AN.— PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person, of 
common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of 
a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. 

%\ 25 
TjUSSAUCE.— A NEW AND COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE 
• ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESS- 
ING : 

Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in 
France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from 
Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, 
Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Rend, De Fontenelle, Mala- 
peyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce, Chemist. Illustrated 

by 212 wood engravings. 8vo $10 00 

TjUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE 
U OF SOAP, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL : 

Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, a Description of all the Raw 
Materials and their Uses. Directions for the Establishment of a 
Soap Factory, with the necessary Apparatus, Instructions in ths 
Manufacture of every variety of Soap, the Assay and Determination 
of the Value of Alkalies, Fatty Substances, Soaps, etc. etc. By 
Professor H. Dussauce. With an Appendix, containing Ex- 
tracts from the Reports of the International Jury on Soaps, as 
exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, numerous 
Tables, etc. etc. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume 8vo. 

of over 800 pages $10 00 

TjUSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION 
^ OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POW- 
DERS. 
By Professor II. Dussauce. 12mo. . , . $3 00 



HENRY CARET BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 71 



DTJSSAUCE.— A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER: 
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the 
Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a 
Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Form- 
ulae of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosme- 
tics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinc- 
tures, Infusions, Yinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, 
Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. 
Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel, 
etc. Withadditions by Professor H. Dussaitce, Chemist. 12mo. 

$3 00 

DUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE OH THE MANUFACTURE 
OF VINEGAR, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. 
■Comprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick pro- 
cesses, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Cider, and Molasses, as well 
as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce. 
12mo. (hi press.) 

DUPLAXS.- A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DISTILLATION 
AND MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS : 
From the French of M. Dtjplais. Translated and Edited by M. 
McKennie, M D. Illustrated by numerous large plates and wood 
engravings of the best apparatus calculated for producing the 
finest products. In one vol. royal 8vo. (Ready May 1, 1871.) 

Q^= This is a treatise of the highest scientific merit and of the 
greatest practical value, surpassing in these respects, as well as 
in the variety of its contents, any similar volume in the English 
' language. 
HE GRAFF.-THE GEOMETRICAL STAIR-BUILDERS' GUIDE: 
V Bein- a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all 
its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel 
En-ravings ; together with the use of the most approved princi- 
ples of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Gkaff, Architect. 
F . $5 00 

4to. 

DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION ; 
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- 
lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles 
and'fabrics now in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and 
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the 
Goods. In one vol. 12mo $ l 25 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S catalogue. 

pASTON.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE OK STREET OR HORSE- 

■° POWER RAILWAYS ; 

Their Location, Construction, and Management ; with General 
• Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; toge- 
ther with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages 
over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for 
Investment ; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relat- 
ing thereto. By Alexander Easton, C. E. Illustrated by 23 
plates, 8vo., cloth . . . . . . . $2 00 

p3RSYTH.— BOOK OF DESIGNS FOR HEAD-STONES, MURAL, 
C AND OTHER MONUMENTS : 

Containing 78 Elaborate and Exquisite Designs. By Forsyth. 

4to., cloth $5 00 

^* This volume, for the beauty and variety of its designs, has 
never been surpassed by any publication of the kind, and should 
be in the hands of every marble-worker who does fine monumental 
work. 

pAIRBAIRN.— THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MA- 

£ CHINERY OF TRANSMISSION : 

Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and 
Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By William Fairbairn, 
Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member 
of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy 
of Turin ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beau- 
tifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo. 

$2 50 

pAIRBAIRN.— PRIME-MOVERS : 

Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power ; the Construc- 
tion of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam; 
the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills. 
By William Fairbairn, C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Au- 
thor of "Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Trans- 
mission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In 
press.) 

ILBART.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING: 

By James William Gilbart. To which is added: The Na- 
tional Bank Act as now in force. 8vo. . . $4 50 

(1ESNER,— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COAL, PETROLEUM, 
U AND OTHER DISTILLED OILS. 

By Abraham Gesner, M. D., F. G. S. Second edition, revised 
and enlarged. By George Weltden Gesner, Consulting 
Chemist and Engineer, Illustrated. 8vo. . . £3 50 










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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13 

3THIC ALBUM FOE CABINET MAKERS : 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Il- 
lustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved 
plates. Oblong $3 00 

RA.NT.— BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE 
BEET: 
By E. B. Grant. 12mo $1 25 

REGORY.— MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, 
and Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates, 
cloth $3 00 



HRIS WOLD .—RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION. 

Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and 
Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary 
Tables for Engineers ; also the art of Levelling from Prelimi- 
nary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Ex- 
pressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valu- 
able Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks. 

$1 75 
UETTIER.— METALLIC ALLOYS : 

Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Pro- 
perties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated 
from the French of A. Guettier, Engineer and Director of 
Founderies, author of " La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By 
A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo. 
(In press,) 



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ATS AND FELTING : 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical 

Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c, 8vo. 

$1 25 
AY.— THE INTERIOR DECORATOR : 

The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decora- 
tions : with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D. 
R. Hat, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Dia- 
gram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo. 

$2 25 

TTUGHES.— AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S AS- 

J " L SISTANT : 

By Wm. Carter Hughes. A new edition. In one volume, 
12mo. .... . ... $1 50 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

TXUNT.— THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 

By Robert Hunt, Vice-President of the Photographic Society, 
London. With numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth . 75 



JTURST.— A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS : 

Comprising Formulae useful in Designing Builders' -work, Table 
of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda 
connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of 
Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Pro- 
perty, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By 
J. F. Hurst, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound 

$2 50 

TEE VIS.— RAILWAY PROPERTY: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Mana- 
gers, Officers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Chief 
Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c. 
One vol. 12mo., cloth .... . $2 00 



JOHNSON.— A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE 

U UNITED STATES -ON AMERICAN COALS: 

Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By 
Walter R. Johnson. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp. 
8vo., half morocco . . . . . $10 00 



JOHNSTON.— INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, 
U LIMESTONES, AND MANURES 

By J. W. F. Johnston. 12mo 35 



TTEENE.— A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING, 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Dis- 
tillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom 
House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By James B. 
Keene, of II. M. Customs. 8vo. . . . $1 25 



HENRY CAREY BATRD'S CATALOGUE. 15 

•gENTISH.— A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Lo- 
garithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measur- 
ing of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. 
By Thomas Kentish. In one volume. 12mo. . . $1 25 



T7-0BELL.— ERNL— MINERALOGY SIMPLIFIED : 

A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by 
means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. 
Translated from the last German Edition of F. Von Kobell, 
•with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other addi- 
tions. By Henri Erni, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of 
Agriculture, author of "Coal Oil and Petroleum." In on© 
volume. 12mo. ... . . $2 50 



TANDRIN.— A TREATISE ON STEEL :" 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Work- 
ing, and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. 
Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer 
and the Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the 
Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to 
the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 12mo. , . $3 00 



T ARKIN.— THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDERS 
JJ GUIDE. 

A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals 
and their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improve- 
ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Pro- 
cess, etc. etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass 
Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, 
Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with extensive Addi- 
tions. In one volume. 12mo. . . . . . $2 25 



15 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

JEAVITT.— FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL: 
"With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities , 
in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu 
facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable ; toge= 
ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Inte~ 
rest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal 
Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at 
Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By H. 
T. Leavitt. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $1 75 

TEROUX— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFAC- 

Jj TURE OF WORSTEDS AND CARDED YARNS : 

Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, Mechanical 
Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. By Dr H. 
Paine, and A. A. Fesquet. Illustrated by 12 large plates, In 
one volume 8vo $5 00 

TESLIE (MISS).— COMPLETE COOKERY: 

Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss 
Leslie. 60th edition. Thoroughly revised, with the addi- 
tion of New Receipts, In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 

T ESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK : 

a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., 
cloth . . . $1 25 

TESLIE (MISS).— TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH 
JJ COOKERY. 

12mo 50 

T LEBER.— ASSAYER'S GUIDE : 

Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for 
the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the 
Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and 
Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. 12mo., cloth 

$1 25 

T OVE.— THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND 

n FINISHING : 

On the most approved English and French methods ; being 
Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, 
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and 
Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English 
Cleaning, etc. By Thomas Love. Second American Edition, to 
which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline 
Colors. 8vo 5 00 



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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 

AIN AND BROWN.— QUESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED 
WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE: 
And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. By 
Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 
and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R.N. 12mo., cloth $1 50 

AIN AND BROWN.— THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER: 

With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By 
Thomas J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief En- 
gineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. From 
the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. ... . $1 50 

AIN AND BROWN —THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at 
Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. 
Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the R,oyal Naval College. 
Authors of "Questions Connected with the Marine Steam-En- 
gine," and the <; Indicator and Dynamometer." With numerous 
Illustrations. In one volume 8vo $5 00 

ARTIN— SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF ME- 
CHANICAL ENGINEERS : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the 
Threads of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for 
Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. 
Martin, Engineer. 8vo. 50 

ILE8— A PLAIN TREATISE ON H0R3E-SH0EING. 
With Illustrations. By William Miles, author of " The Horse's 
Foot" $1 00 

OLESWORTIi.— POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULiE AND 
MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHiNICAL ENGINEERS. 
By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. 
Second American from the Tenth London Edition. In one 
volume, full bound in pocket-book form . . .. . $2 00 

OORE.— THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE: 

Patent Office and Patent Laws : or, a Guide to Inventors, and a 
Book of Preference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others. 

By J G. Moore. 12mo., cloth $1 25 

APIER.— A MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY : 
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. 
By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In 
one volume, 8vo. . $2 00 



18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

TUA.PIER.— A SYSTEM OF CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO DYEING : 

Br James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised 
Edition, completely brought up to the present state of the 
Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors. By A. A. 
Fesquet, 'Chemist and Engineer. "With an Appendix on Dyeing 
and Calico Printing, as shown at the Paris Universal Exposition 
of 1867, from the Reports of the International Jury, etc. Illus- 
trated. In one volume 8vo., 400 pages . . . . $5 00 

TCTEWBERY.— GLEANINGS FROM ORNAMENTAL ART OF 
■" EVERY STYLE; 

Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one 
hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred ex- 
amples. By Robert Newbery. 4to $15 00 

JTICHOLSON.— A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING: 
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forward- 
ing, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book- 
edges and Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. 12mo. 
cloth .... $2 25 

fTORRIS.— A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND 
**. MACHINISTS: 

Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing 
Locomotives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, 
Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By Septimus Norris, Civil and Me- 
chanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth 

$2 00 

JJYSTROM. — ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE 
CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late 
Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with 
additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. 

$2 50 

'NEILL.— A DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINT- 
ING: 

Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics : with Prac- 
tical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, 
Analytical Chemist; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London ; 
Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; 
Author of " Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." To which 
is added An Essay on Coal Tar' Colors and their Application to 







HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 

Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesqtjet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as 
shown at the Exposition of 1S67, from the Reports of the Interna, 
tional Jury, etc. In one volume 8vo., 491 pages . . $6 00 
ASBORN.— THE METALLURGY OE IRON AND STEEL : 

Theoretical and Practical : In all its Branches ; With Special Re- 
ference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. Osborn, 
LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, 
Easton, Pa. Illustrated by 230 Engravings on Wood, and 6 
Folding Plates. 8vo., 972 pages . . . . . . $10 00 

SBORN.— AMERICAN MINES AND MINING : 

Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. Os- 
born, Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.) 
AINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION : 

Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the 
Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, with 
numerous useful and valuable Receipts ; Tests for the Detection 
of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement of the Dis- 
eases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers 
are particularly liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention 
and Remedy. With Directions for Graining, Marbling, Sign Writ- 
ing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are added Complete Instruc- 
tions for Coach Painting and Varnishing. 12mo., cloth, $1 50 
ALLETT.— THE MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGI- 
NEER'S GUIDE. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. . $3 00 
PERKINS.— GAS AND VENTILATION. 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scien- 
tific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With illustrated 
Diagrams. By E. E. Perkins. 12mo., cloth ... . $1 25 

ERKINS AND STOWE.— A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET-IRON 
AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER: 

Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and 
Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the 
Sizes of Bars to Produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar 
Gauge in Decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on 
the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the 
Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet- 
iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle ; and the 
conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight 
into Short. Estimated and collected by G. II. Perkins and J. G- 
Stowe $2 50 



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20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE 

pHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.— RECORDS OF MINING AND 

•*" METALLURGY : 

Or, Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and 
Smelter. Hy J. Arthur Piiillii'S, Mining Engineer, Graduate of 
the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and John Darlington. 
Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $2 00 

pRADAL, MALEPEYRE, AND DUSSAUCE. — A COMPLETE 

£ TREATISE ON PERFUMERY: 

Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Ait, and the 
Best Formula;. According fcp the most approved Methods followed 
in France, England, and the United States. By M. P. Pradal, 
Perfumer-Chemist, and M. F. Malepeyre. Translated from the 
French, with extensive additions, by Prof. II. Dussauce. 8vo. $10 

ROTEAUX.— PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE 
OF PAPER AND BOARDS. 
By A. Protbaux, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of 
Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers's Paper Mill, 'Puy-do- 
DOmc. With additions, by L. S. Le Normand. Translated from 
the French, with Notes, by Horatio Paine, A. B., M. D. To 
which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood 
in the United States, by Henry T. Brown, of the "American 
Artisan." Illustrated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw 
Materials, Machinery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc. etc. 8vo. $5 00 

■DEGNAULT.— ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. 

"" By M. V. Rkgnault. Translated from the French by T. For- 
rest Benton, M. B. , and edited, with notes, by James C. Booth, 
Mclter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and Wm. L. Faber, Metallurgist 
and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. 
Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two vols. 8vo., cloth $10 00 

"DEID.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF 

■" PORTLAND' CEMENT : 

By Henry Reid, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. 
A. Lipowitz's Work, describing anew method adopted in Germany 
of Manufacturing that Cement. By W. F. Reid. Illustrated by 
plates and wood engravings. 8vo. . . . . . $7 00 

piFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL 

11 TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF COLORS FOR 
PAINTING : 

Containing the best Formula) and the Processes the Newest and 
in most General Use. By MM. Riffault, Vergnaup, and Tous- 
saint. Revised and Edited by M. F. Malepeyre and Dr. Emu, 
Winckler. Illustrated by Engravings. In one vol. 8vo. {In 
preparation.) 



^ HENRY CAREY BAIBD>S CATALOGUE. 21 

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUL, AJTO TOUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL 
TREATISE OK THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES : 
By •'■'-', v*bb«hato>, and TotrggAnrr. Revised and 

Edited by M. F. Malepeyee and Dr ;. • ..ku. Illus- 

trated. In one rol. 8vo. {In preparation.) 

OHUNK— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES 
AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS. 
BjWu. F. Shot \\ Civi] Engineer. L2mo., tneks . ^2 00 

gMEATON.— EUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION: 

Containing the Elemental of Building, Surveying, and Ar< 
tore 5 with.Prac and Infractions connected with the gab- 

'■ By A. C - C .. gineer, ete. In an 
12 '" $1 50 

gUITH.— THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR: 

0' 9 Practical Instructions it g ' .- Cot- 

' - . WV, . Gv,d- - ';' 
800 1 V hicb wadded a Treatise o« be .'. • ; Pad- 

• the Printing oi i 

foi the dif 
such work. By Bayed - ." _ ar, :_-...-... doth 

CTIITH.- THE PRACTICAL D7EE ; S GUIDE: 
Engtrael 
Silk Striped Oi .. 'iit.to 

from White ; 

Tanu bs, etc. C01 ag nearly 300 Receipts, to 

-;. Dyed Yb- ■ - ... 

the Art of Pa 1 - g By Dj ... S ■: ::v;r. In one vol. 8vo. $25 00 

qHAW.— CIVIL ARCHITECTURE : 

Eeii • . '---'■■ 1 'uh'^H-.v/,,}. -. -AY ... j-, . .. 

containing the Fundameni 

lw, Architect. To s on Gothic - 

V-.':\.TH. i:-:. liv T."', r.-.'-. "■'.' '-' ;;.;.', v.\: 7 :. — '):./•,:. M. IlABJV 

Architect! !The 2 inarto plates finely 

engraved'.:, uoppei Eleventh Edition. •'*.-, Cloth, '. 

OLOAN.— AMERICAN HOUSE':: 

A variety ' gh Desigi :'• rBai E ag I ■ - e . •. .• 
26 -.-. Bngi Reference*. By Samoei 
Model Architect. 

CjCHINZ.-RESEARCHES ON THE ACTION OF THE BLAST. 
w FUBEACE 

ByCnAs Schwz Seven 12dm . . £4 2: 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 

OMITH.— PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS : 

Or, Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, 
and Gardens. By Charles II. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener 
and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo. , , . . $2 25 

OTOKES.— CABINET-MAKER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPA- 

° NION : 

Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and 
Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples 
for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable 
to Cabinet-work ; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and 
Buhl-work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise 
Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing ; 
to make French Polish ; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and 
Compositions, and a number of Receipts, particularly for workmen 
generally. By J. Stokes. In one vol. 12mo. With illustrations 

$1 25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS. 

Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Test- 
ing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By 
Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority 
of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In 
1 vol. quarto . $10 00 

DULLIVAN.— PROTECTION TO NATIVE INDUSTRY. 

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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 

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